Peace Disruption by Weaponisation of Water Security through the Passage of Time (Part 2)

TRANSCEND MEMBERS, 25 Sep 2023

Prof Hoosen Vawda – TRANSCEND Media Service

“Water is the essence of life, itself, it is the beginning and the end, both literally and figuratively, through evolution, as well as socially.” [i]

 This paper discusses water security from the perspectives of the history of water supply disruptions from antiquity through to the 21^st century, and how empires, cities and towns have been decimated by weaponisation of water scarcity[ii] over the millennia.  In the present era, water security has become a critical challenge, with global industrial pollution, compounded by widespread drought and flooding, based on erratic and cyclonic weather patterns, due to global climate change, affecting not only the developing nations, but also the first world countries.  This challenge is already having a profound impact not only on humanity, but also on livestock, game reserves, various natural, global ecosystems, aquatic life and further aggravating the suffering of humanoids.  There are many factors that contribute to low water security. This can be broadly categorised into two categories: Water Unavailability, as experienced in flooding or water contaminated by radioactive material, as in the recent Fukushima nuclear catastrophe[iii] in Japan, due to a tsunami destroying the nuclear power facility or Water Scarcity, whereby water demand exceeds supply in many regions of the world. This can be due to population growth, higher living standards, general economic expansion and/or greater quantities of water used in agriculture for irrigation, or in mining and industrial usage.[iv]

While we are all aware of the impact of water insecurity, in general, on all of humanity, there are certain communities, existing at extremes of living conditions, where they are especially compromised by climate change and the plight of these people needs to be highlighted.  Some examples are,  the reindeer-herding Sami peoples[v] of Europe’s far north who are fighting to preserve their ancient way of life amidst global warming and how they are managing these new challenges  Essentially, the Sámi culture is at risk from lack of substantive global responses to climate change.[vi]  Their hope is that the Sámi parliaments, established after much struggle to give a voice to Indigenous inhabitants, can help preserve their unique way of life, through pressure on the Scandinavian governments, seeking to develop the Arctic tundra biome[vii]for everyone’s benefit.  However, what if safeguarding the Sámi environmental heritage and saving the planet are, in the end, irreconcilable?  These points are presented in a video aired on Al Jazeera, Media Network.[viii]  Another unique example, unpacking the challenge of water security is Iraq’s intensifying water crisis and how it is impacting the country’s rural communities. Iraq is running fast, out of water. It is the fifth most vulnerable nation to the impact of climate change, according to the United Nations. Temperatures have risen by more than 2.5 degrees Celsius (36.5 degrees Fahrenheit) since the end of the 19^th century, double the global average. The impact has been particularly visible in the last two years. Water levels in the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have dropped by half. Iraq’s government blames upstream water use by its neighbours as the primary culprit, but has been criticised for not taking any steps at climate mitigation or initiating adaptation strategies. Many Iraqis say oil industry water usage is also exacerbating the problem, significantly.  In another documentary, People & Power, on Al Jazeera, examines the internal and external factors contributing to Iraq’s water shortage while shedding light on the government’s response.[ix]

 In Nairobi, the capital of Kenya[x], in informal settlements, there is a new challenge, water shortage triggers extortion and sextortion[xi].  Climate change is affecting water availability and is cutting through the fragile fabric of this area, hitting the most vulnerable groups, hardest.  Extortion has been followed by sextortion. “We buy water and most parents send their children to fetch the water after school and over the weekends. Water vendors take advantage of them, touching them inappropriately and luring them into sex for water,” says Esther Musavi, another resident of Makina area Kibera[xii].  Sex-for-water has been normalised in the slum, said Judith Shitabule, a community health volunteer who works closely with Musavi. “I stay along the road and I have seen these cases. The girls did not know that it was not good for them. We have seen worst-case scenarios of rape and defilement for girls trying to access clean water and other sanitation facilities, such as toilets. We have had over 50 cases over last year.” Teenage pregnancies are on the rise as a result, prompting Umande Trust, an NGO championing climate-smart intervention, in addressing water and sanitation needs of Kibera’s residents, to intervene. Through education, the victims are now coming out and reporting the cases, helping authorities to intervene and prosecute the perpetrators. They also seek medical services after rape. These incidents are reflected in a recent study by the Kenya Water and Sanitation Civil Society Network (Kewasnet) that shows although Kenyans consider access to water a constitutional right, a vast majority are denied it in Kibera. The study was conducted in December 2021 and found that 24% of participants had to collect water from distances that are beyond those recommended under the Sphere Project standards (internationally acceptable humanitarian standards) with a negative effect on the welfare of those who collect the water, especially women. Of the 900 respondents, only 12% indicated that their water source was reliable (with 24-hour availability) and 50% said it was unpredictable.[xiii]

Similarly, ongoing conflicts in Northern Iraq, coupled with severe drought, has brought enormous challenges to the buffalo and sheep herders, resulting in these farmers abandoning their land and cattle as they migrate due to the regional violence.[xiv]

To place water insecurity into perspective, over passage of time, it is necessary to review the problem in antiquity and how great civilisations were eradicated due to this scarcity. Cities in antiquity, have surrendered, in invasion sieges, where water supply was cut off to these cities and towns, by the invading forces.  Throughout antiquity, many cities and towns that were under siege by invading forces often faced the tactic of having their water supply cut off. This strategy was employed to weaken the defenders’ resolve and make them more likely to surrender due to the lack of a vital resource. Notable examples of such sieges from ancient history are:

Siege of Jericho (c. 1400 BCE):[xv]

In the biblical account of the Israelites’ conquest of Canaan, the city of Jericho famously had its water supply cut off during the siege. The Israelites, led by Joshua, encircled the city for seven days, and on the seventh day, the walls of Jericho fell, allowing the Israelites to capture the city.

Siege of Syracuse (214-212 BCE):[xvi]

During the Second Punic War, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus laid siege to the ancient Greek city of Syracuse in Sicily. Marcellus ordered his troops to block the city’s access to the sea and cut off its water supply by diverting a river that flowed into the city. This siege eventually led to the fall of Syracuse to the Romans.

Siege of Tyre (332 BCE):[xvii]

Alexander the Great’s siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre is another well-known example. The city was situated on an island, and Alexander used a combination of a mole (a causeway) and a blockade to cut off its access to the sea. This siege lasted seven months and resulted in Tyre’s surrender to Alexander.

Siege of Masada (73-74 CE):[xviii]

The siege of Masada was the final battle in the First Jewish-Roman War. Roman forces, under the command of Flavius Silva, laid siege to the Jewish fortress of Masada. The defenders, knowing they would not survive, reportedly destroyed their own water supply cisterns rather than let them fall into Roman hands. This desperate act demonstrated their determination to resist Roman rule at all costs.

Siege of Carthage (149-146 BCE):[xix]

During the Third Punic War, the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus laid siege to the city of Carthage. The Romans constructed a massive siege wall around the city, effectively cutting off its access to the sea and its water supply. The prolonged siege eventually led to the destruction of Carthage.

In addition, There are historical accounts of invading forces poisoning oases as a tactic to weaken local populations or make the areas uninhabitable. Here are a few examples from antiquity:

Siege of Gaza (332 BCE):[xx]

During Alexander the Great’s campaign in the Near East, he laid siege to the city of Gaza, which was strategically located along his route to Egypt. To weaken the defenders, it is said that Alexander’s forces poisoned the local wells and springs, rendering the oasis water undrinkable. This tactic contributed to the eventual fall of the city.

Siege of Masada (73-74 CE):

Masada, a desert fortress in ancient Judea, was besieged by Roman forces during the First Jewish-Roman War.  According to the historian Flavius Josephus, the Roman troops constructed a massive siege wall and camps around Masada and also diverted the nearby spring’s water away from the fortress to cut off the defenders’ water supply. This tactic played a role in the eventual surrender of Masada’s defenders.

Ancient Carthage (c. 149-146 BCE):

During the Third Punic War, the Roman Republic laid siege to the city of Carthage in North Africa. The Romans used a combination of military force and tactics, including a naval blockade, to cut off Carthage’s access to water sources and supplies. This blockade and water siege contributed to the fall of the city and the destruction of Carthage.

These historical examples illustrate how invading forces sometimes used the tactic of poisoning or cutting off water sources, such as oases or springs, as part of their siege strategies. It was a brutal method aimed at weakening the defenders’ resolve and making it difficult for them to continue resisting.

These are just a few examples of cities and towns in antiquity where the tactic of cutting off the water supply was employed during sieges. It was a common strategy in ancient warfare to weaken the defenders and increase the likelihood of surrender, as access to water was crucial for the survival of any besieged population. Hence the great Basilica Cistern of present-day Istanbul, discovered accidently, in recent history, were constructed to ensure water security in the event of a siege by invading forces during that era.[xxi]  The Basilica Cistern, or Cisterna Basilica (Greek: Βασιλική Κινστέρνα, Turkish: Yerebatan Sarnıcı or Yerebatan Saray, “Subterranean Cistern” or “Subterranean Palace”), is the largest of several hundred ancient cisterns that lie beneath the city of Istanbul, Turkey. The cistern, located 150 metres (490 ft) southwest of the Hagia Sophia on the historical peninsula of Sarayburnu, was built in the 6th century during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.  Today it is kept with little water, for public access and visitors, inside the space.[xxii]

The bases of two columns, in the northwest corner of the cistern reuse blocks carved with the face of Medusa. The origin of the two heads is unknown, though it is thought that they were brought to the cistern after being removed from a building of the late Roman period. There is no evidence to suggest that they were previously used as column bases. Tradition has it that the blocks are oriented sideways and inverted in order to negate the power of the Gorgons’ gaze;[xxiii] but it is more likely that the stones were treated as mere rubble to be reused in a setting not originally intended to be viewed by visitors.  The Basilica cistern was popularised in the great spy thriller, based on Ian Fleming’s novel, “From Russia with Love”. The cistern was used as a location for the 1963 James Bond film From Russia with Love. In the film, it is referred to as having been constructed by the Emperor Constantine, with no reference to Justinian, and is fictitiously located under the Soviet consulate. In reality it is a long way away from the former Soviet (now Russian) consulate in Beyoğlu.[xxiv]

Water sieges were a common strategy during foreign invasions in India by various rulers and empires, including the Sultans, Mughals, Portuguese, and British. Additionally, I’ll also briefly mention the famous water siege of ancient Constantinople for context.

Water Sieges in India:[xxv]

Sultanates and Mughals:

During the medieval period in India, many invading forces used water sieges as a tactic to capture fortresses and cities. These sieges involved cutting off or contaminating the water supply to force the defenders to surrender.

For example, during the Sultanate period, Sultan Alauddin Khilji is known to have employed water sieges during his conquests in the 13^th century.[xxvi]

In the Mughal era, water sieges were also used. For instance, during the Mughal conquest of the Deccan, water supply systems in forts were targeted.

The famous Mughal Emperor Akbar is known to have besieged the fort of Ranthambore in Rajasthan, and his forces managed to cut off the fort’s water supply, eventually leading to its surrender.

Portuguese Colonialisation of India:[xxvii]

The Portuguese, during their colonial period in India in the 16th century, often used naval blockades to cut off the coastal towns and cities from their sources of fresh water.

For example, during the Portuguese siege of Diu (in present-day Gujarat), they successfully blockaded the city’s access to fresh water, putting pressure on the defenders[xxviii].

British Colonisation of India[xxix]

The British East India Company and later the British Empire used water sieges as a tactic in various conflicts in India. One notable example is the Siege of Seringapatam in 1799 during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. The British, led by General Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), cut off the city’s water supply by diverting the River Cauvery, which forced the surrender of the city and the death of Tipu Sultan[xxx][xxxi].

Ancient Constantinople:

While not in India, the Siege of Constantinople in 1453 [xxxii]is a famous example of a water siege. The Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmed II, besieged the Byzantine city of Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).

The Ottomans used a combination of land-based and naval tactics to block off the city and its access to the sea, effectively cutting off its supply routes. The Ottoman navy also constructed a massive chain across the Golden Horn, a natural harbor, to prevent aid from reaching the city by sea.  The prolonged siege, coupled with the blockade of the city’s waterways, eventually led to the fall of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire.

These examples illustrate how water sieges were employed as effective military tactics in various historical contexts, both in India and beyond, to weaken defenders and expedite the capture of fortified cities and fortresses.

In contemporary history, during both World War I and World War II, there were instances where cities or regions faced water supply disruptions as a result of military actions. Notable examples from each war are:

World War I:

Siege of Kut-al-Amara (1915-1916):[xxxiii]

During World War I, the British-Indian forces were besieged by the Ottoman Empire in the town of Kut-al-Amara (now in Iraq). The Ottomans cut off the Tigris River, which was the town’s primary water source. This, along with other hardships, contributed to the eventual surrender of the British-Indian forces in April 1916.

World War II:

Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944)[xxxiv]:

One of the most infamous instances of a city facing a blockade during World War II was the Siege of Leningrad (now known as Saint Petersburg, Russia) by German and Finnish forces. The city was encircled for almost 900 days, and during this time, its inhabitants suffered from severe food and water shortages. Lake Ladoga, to the east of the city, provided a lifeline for supplies, but it was a perilous and challenging route. The scarcity of clean water was a significant problem, leading to outbreaks of disease and suffering among the population.

Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943):[xxxv]

During the Battle of Stalingrad, which was a turning point in World War II, the German forces surrounded the Soviet city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) and cut off its supply lines, including access to the Volga River. The city endured extreme hardships, including water shortages, as it was under siege for months. The Soviet defenders and civilians faced dire conditions before the tide of the battle turned in favor of the Soviets.

Siege of Malta (1940-1942):[xxxvi]

The Mediterranean island of Malta, which was a British colony during World War II, endured a prolonged siege by Axis forces[xxxvii]. The island’s strategic location made it a target, and it faced repeated air raids and blockades. The Axis powers sought to cut off its supply lines, including its access to fresh water, which made life difficult for the inhabitants and defenders of Malta. Despite these challenges, Malta held out and played a crucial role in the Allied war effort in the Mediterranean.

These examples illustrate how cutting off water supplies or imposing blockades was a common tactic in modern warfare, leading to significant suffering and hardship for civilian populations and military forces alike.

In more recent times, the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam[xxxviii] (GERD) on the Blue Nile River in Ethiopia has been a source of regional tension and concern, particularly for Egypt and Sudan, as it has the potential to impact their regular water supply and the flow of the Nile River, which is a vital water source for both countries. Somalia, while not directly adjacent to the Nile, has also shown interest in the issue due to its potential regional implications.

Key points on how the GERD has raised concerns about water supply in the region:

Water Supply to Egypt and Sudan:

Egypt and Sudan heavily rely on the waters of the Nile River for their freshwater supply, agriculture, and other economic activities.

The construction of the GERD upstream in Ethiopia has raised concerns about how it might affect the flow of the Nile River downstream, potentially reducing the amount of water available to Egypt and Sudan.

Filling of the GERD Reservoir:

The main point of contention has been the filling of the GERD reservoir. Ethiopia intends to fill the dam’s reservoir gradually over several years, while Egypt and Sudan are concerned that a rapid filling could significantly reduce the flow of the Nile during the filling period, affecting their water supply.

Negotiations and Diplomacy:

Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia have engaged in negotiations to address their concerns and reach an agreement on the operation and filling of the dam.

The negotiations have been ongoing for years, and there have been periods of tension and disagreement. The countries have sought mediation from various parties, including the African Union and the United States.

Environmental and Economic Impacts:

The GERD’s construction could have downstream impacts on the environment, agriculture, and hydropower generation in both Egypt and Sudan.

Egypt, in particular, has expressed concerns about the potential for water shortages and the economic ramifications of reduced water availability.

Regional Implications:

The issue has regional implications because the Nile River flows through multiple countries, and any changes in water flow could affect not only Egypt and Sudan but also other downstream nations in the Nile Basin.

Somalia, although not directly adjacent to the Nile, has shown interest in the issue due to its potential impact on regional stability and water resource management in the Horn of Africa.

Efforts continue to resolve the disputes surrounding the GERD through negotiations and diplomatic channels. Finding a mutually acceptable agreement that addresses the concerns of all parties while allowing for the development of the dam is essential to maintain water security and stability in the region.

The human body is made up of a significant percentage of water, which varies depending on factors such as age, sex, and body composition. On average, an adult human body is composed of approximately 60% water[xxxix]. This percentage can be higher in infants and children and may vary somewhat among individuals.  It is important to note that, Infants, having a larger surface area compared to their body mass and size, are prone to dehydration more rapidly, than adults.

Water is essential for various bodily functions, including circulation, digestion, temperature regulation, and overall cellular processes. Maintaining proper hydration is crucial for good health and well-being. Human dehydration occurs when the body loses more fluids than it takes in, and it can lead to a range of adverse effects on various bodily functions.  It is relevant to review a breakdown of some key human body functions and how they are affected when a person is dehydrated, along with information on the body’s water requirements:

Circulatory System:

Dehydration reduces blood volume, making it harder for the heart to pump blood effectively. This can lead to increased heart rate and reduced blood pressure.

The decreased blood volume also affects the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to cells, potentially causing fatigue and weakness.

Digestive System:

Dehydration can lead to constipation as the body conserves water for essential functions, reducing the amount available for the digestive system.

It can also impair the body’s ability to produce digestive enzymes, potentially leading to indigestion and other gastrointestinal issues.

Urinary System:

Dehydration causes a decrease in urine output as the body tries to conserve water. Urine may become darker in color and more concentrated.

In severe cases, dehydration can lead to kidney stones and urinary tract infections due to reduced urine flow and increased mineral concentration in the urinary tract.

Temperature Regulation:

Sweating is a critical mechanism for regulating body temperature. When dehydrated, the body may have difficulty cooling itself, leading to heat-related illnesses such as heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

Cognitive Function[xl]:

Dehydration can impair cognitive functions such as concentration, memory, and decision-making.

Headaches, dizziness, and confusion are common symptoms of dehydration that can affect mental clarity.

Muscle Function:

Muscles may cramp or spasm when dehydrated. Dehydration can also lead to muscle weakness and reduced endurance during physical activity.

Skin:

Dehydrated skin may become dry, flushed, and less elastic. Severe dehydration can lead to sunken eyes and dry, cracked skin.

Overall Well-being:

Dehydration can cause a general feeling of malaise, fatigue, and irritability. Severe dehydration is a medical emergency and can lead to unconsciousness, seizures, and organ failure if left untreated.

Water Requirements When Dehydrated[xli]:

The amount of water needed to rehydrate a dehydrated individual depends on the extent of dehydration. Mild dehydration may be treated by drinking fluids and consuming foods with high water content (e.g., fruits and vegetables). In moderate to severe cases of dehydration, medical attention may be necessary, and intravenous (IV) fluids may be administered to rapidly restore fluid balance. To gauge hydration levels, monitoring urine color (pale yellow is typically ideal) and paying attention to thirst cues can be helpful. Preventing dehydration is crucial for overall health. The daily water intake recommendations can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, activity level, and climate. A general guideline is to aim for about 8-10 cups (64-80 fluid ounces) of water per day, but individual needs may differ. Staying hydrated through regular fluid intake and eating foods with high water content can help maintain proper bodily functions and overall well-being. Hence, water security is of paramount importance at all times, not only for humans, but also for animals, as well as fauna and flora.

Sources of drinking water can vary by region and availability,  however, some common sources of drinking water, today are:

Surface Water:

Rivers: Water is sourced directly from rivers and treated for drinking.

Lakes: Lakes and reservoirs often serve as sources of drinking water for nearby communities.

Ponds: Some communities use local ponds as water sources, typically after treatment.

Groundwater:

Wells: Groundwater is accessed through wells, which can be shallow or deep, depending on the location and aquifer depth.

Springs: Natural springs are sources of groundwater that flow to the surface and are often tapped for drinking water.

Municipal Water Supplies:

Public Water Systems: Many urban and suburban areas receive their drinking water from municipal water treatment plants. These facilities source water from various surface and groundwater sources, treat it to remove contaminants, and then distribute it to homes and businesses through a network of pipes.

Bottled Water:

Bottled water comes from various sources, including natural springs, municipal supplies, and purified tap water. It is packaged in bottles and sold commercially.

Rainwater Harvesting:

In some regions, rainwater is collected from rooftops and stored in tanks or cisterns for drinking and other household uses, particularly in areas with limited access to traditional water sources.

Desalination:[xlii]

Desalination plants use seawater as a source and employ various processes to remove salt and impurities, providing freshwater for drinking and other purposes. This is especially common in arid coastal regions.

Treated Wastewater (Recycled Water):[xliii]

In some areas, treated wastewater, also known as reclaimed or recycled water, is purified to a high standard and used for non-potable purposes like irrigation, industrial processes, and even indirect potable reuse in certain systems.

Truck-Delivered Water:

In remote or underserved areas, potable water may be transported by truck and delivered to communities.

Portable Water Filtration Devices:

Portable water filters and purifiers are used in outdoor activities, travel, and emergencies to make water from natural sources safe for drinking.

It is important to note that the quality and safety of drinking water can vary significantly depending on the source and the treatment processes involved. Many regions have strict regulations and monitoring systems in place to ensure that drinking water is safe for consumption by all of the Lord’s creation.

Several countries around the world have implemented water recycling and purification systems to produce safe and clean water for human consumption. These systems treat wastewater from various sources and use advanced technologies to purify it to drinking water standards. Here are a few countries that are known for recycling water for human consumption:

Singapore is a leader in water recycling [xliv]and has implemented advanced technologies, including reverse osmosis and ultraviolet disinfection, to treat wastewater to drinking water quality.

NEWater is the brand name for Singapore’s high-grade reclaimed water, which is used for various purposes, including drinking, industrial processes, and cooling systems.

Australia, particularly in cities like Perth, has implemented water recycling systems to combat water scarcity. They use advanced purification methods to treat wastewater for reuse, including for drinking.

The city of Perth’s Groundwater Replenishment Scheme[xlv], for example, treats wastewater to produce high-quality drinking water.

Namibia, a country with arid regions, has implemented water recycling and purification systems to augment its water supply. The Windhoek Goreangab Reclamation Plant[xlvi] is one such facility that treats wastewater for potable use.

Some regions in the United States have adopted water recycling and reuse programs, although they may not be as widespread as in some other countries. For example, the Orange County Water District in California operates one of the largest indirect potable reuse systems in the U.S., where treated wastewater is injected into the ground to replenish aquifers.

Israel, a country facing chronic water scarcity, has developed advanced technologies for wastewater treatment and recycling. The country’s recycled water is used for agricultural irrigation and replenishing natural water sources. While it’s not typically used for direct drinking, it contributes to the overall water supply.

Spain, particularly in regions with water scarcity issues like Catalonia, has implemented water recycling programs. Treated wastewater is used for non-potable purposes and to recharge aquifers, indirectly contributing to the overall water supply.

United Arab Emirates and Gulf Region: Wastewater is collected and processed through treatment plants to remove contaminants. The reclaimed water, which has many uses in the emirate, is used to irrigate green spaces and landscaping through Dubai Municipality’s network of around 2,400 kilometres, which covers most areas of the city.  Dubai plans to recycle 100% of its waste water by 2030.[xlvii]

These are just a few examples, and many other regions and countries are exploring or implementing water recycling and purification systems to address water scarcity and ensure a sustainable supply of clean drinking water. The specific regulations and practices can vary widely from one location to another

Climate change is having significant and complex effects on water security, posing challenges for the availability, quality, and distribution of freshwater resources. Here are some of the ways in which climate change is impacting water security for the future:

Altered Precipitation Patterns:

Climate change can lead to shifts in precipitation patterns, causing more frequent and severe droughts in some regions while increasing the risk of heavy rainfall and flooding in others.

These changes can disrupt water availability, making it challenging for both agriculture and urban water supplies.

Melting Glaciers and Snowpacks[xlviii]:

Rising temperatures are causing glaciers and snowpacks in mountainous regions to melt at an accelerated rate. These ice reservoirs are essential sources of freshwater for downstream communities. The loss of glacier-dependent water sources can result in water scarcity during dry seasons.

Sea Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion:

Rising sea levels can lead to saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers, making them brackish or saline. This affects the availability of freshwater for coastal communities.

Saltwater intrusion can also contaminate surface water sources near coastlines.

Changes in River Flow:

Climate change can disrupt river flow patterns, leading to reduced streamflow in some rivers and increased flow in others. Unpredictable river flows can impact water availability for agriculture, industry, and municipal use.

Increased Evaporation:

Higher temperatures can increase evaporation rates from surface water bodies like lakes and reservoirs.

This can reduce the volume of water stored in these bodies, affecting water availability.

Extreme Weather Events:

More frequent and intense extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and cyclones, can damage water infrastructure, disrupt water treatment facilities, and contaminate water sources.

These events can result in temporary water shortages and pose public health risks.

Water Quality Issues:

Climate change can affect water quality by promoting harmful algal blooms, which can release toxins into water bodies.

Higher temperatures can also lead to increased bacterial growth, affecting the safety of drinking water.

Competition for Water Resources:

As water becomes scarcer in some regions, competition for freshwater resources can intensify, leading to potential conflicts and geopolitical tensions.

Mass Human Migrations and Displacements:

Water scarcity and related climate impacts can force people to migrate from their homes, either internally or across borders, creating social and humanitarian challenges.

To address these challenges and enhance water security in the face of climate change, communities, governments, and organizations are adopting strategies such as water conservation, improved water management practices, investment in water infrastructure, and the development of climate-resilient water systems. Additionally, international cooperation is essential to mitigate climate change and ensure the sustainable management of freshwater resources on a global scale.

Deforestation has significant and far-reaching impacts on water security, both at local and global scales. Here are some of the ways in which deforestation affects water security:

Reduced Water Quality:

Deforestation can lead to increased erosion, as tree roots that help bind soil together are removed. This erosion can result in sedimentation in rivers and streams, which degrades water quality by increasing turbidity and carrying pollutants into water bodies.

Altered Hydrological Cycles:[xlix]

Trees play a crucial role in regulating the hydrological cycle. They absorb water from the soil through their roots and release it into the atmosphere through a process called transpiration.

Deforestation disrupts this cycle, leading to altered patterns of rainfall, reduced groundwater recharge, and changes in the timing and intensity of runoff.

Increased Flooding and Landslides:

When forests are cleared, the natural buffer against heavy rainfall is removed. This can result in increased surface runoff during storms, leading to more frequent and severe flooding.

Deforested slopes are also more susceptible to landslides, especially in hilly or mountainous areas, which can further disrupt water supplies and pose risks to communities downstream.

Lower Baseflow in Rivers:

Trees help maintain baseflow in rivers by slowly releasing water into streams over time. Deforestation can reduce this baseflow, leading to lower water levels in rivers during dry periods. Reduced baseflow can impact aquatic ecosystems and the availability of water for agriculture and human consumption.

Changes in Local Climate:

Deforestation can alter local climate patterns. Removing trees reduces the cooling effect of shade and transpiration, leading to higher temperatures in deforested areas.

Increased temperatures can affect the water cycle, leading to more rapid evaporation of water from soils and water bodies.

Loss of Biodiversity:

Forests are home to diverse ecosystems, including many species of plants and animals. The loss of these ecosystems can affect the health of rivers and other freshwater bodies.

Biodiversity loss can disrupt nutrient cycling, alter food chains, and impact the balance of aquatic ecosystems.

Water Supply Vulnerability:

In regions where communities rely on forested watersheds for their water supply, deforestation can make water sources more vulnerable to variations in rainfall and climate.

Reduced forest cover can lead to increased water scarcity during dry periods and threaten the reliability of water supply systems.

Global Water Cycle:

Deforestation can contribute to changes in the global water cycle. Large-scale forest removal can disrupt weather patterns, affecting rainfall patterns in regions far from the deforestation site.

Addressing the impacts of deforestation on water security requires conservation and reforestation efforts to protect and restore forested ecosystems. Sustainable land management practices and afforestation (planting trees in deforested areas) can help mitigate these impacts and ensure the sustainable provision of clean water for both ecosystems and human needs.

Coral reef degradation is another factor in water security and is a complex and multifaceted issue that is primarily caused by a combination of human activities and environmental stressors. The Great Barrier Reef, located along the Eastern Australian coast, is one of the most well-known and affected coral reef systems in the world. Here’s how coral reef degradation is caused and its impacts on water security for both human and aquatic ecosystems:

Causes of Coral Reef Degradation:

Climate Change:

Rising Sea Temperatures: Increased sea temperatures due to climate change can lead to coral bleaching. When coral polyps expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) that provide them with energy and color, the corals turn white and become stressed. Repeated or prolonged bleaching events can lead to coral death.

Ocean Acidification: Elevated levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) lead to ocean acidification, which can weaken the calcium carbonate structures of coral reefs, making them more vulnerable to physical damage.

Pollution:

Nutrient Runoff: Excessive nutrient runoff from agricultural and urban areas can cause nutrient enrichment in coastal waters. This leads to algal blooms that block sunlight from reaching corals and can smother them.

Chemical Pollution: Pesticides, herbicides, and other chemicals can enter reef ecosystems and harm corals and the organisms that depend on them.

Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Practices:

Overfishing of herbivorous fish species that help control algae on reefs can disrupt the balance of the ecosystem. Destructive fishing practices, such as using dynamite or cyanide to capture fish, physically damage coral reefs.

Coastal Development:

Coastal development, including the construction of ports, resorts, and residential areas, can lead to increased sediment runoff, pollution, and physical damage to reefs due to activities like dredging and construction.

Impact on Water Security:

Human Life:

Loss of Livelihoods: Coral reefs support fisheries, tourism, and other livelihoods for millions of people worldwide. The degradation of reefs can result in economic losses and reduced food security for coastal communities that depend on reef resources.

Storm Protection: Healthy coral reefs serve as natural barriers that help protect coastlines from erosion and storm surge. Their degradation can increase vulnerability to coastal hazards, affecting water security for communities in vulnerable areas.

Sea Life and Aquatic Ecosystems:

Biodiversity Loss: Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, providing habitat and sustenance for countless species of fish, invertebrates, and other marine life. The decline of coral reefs can lead to the loss of biodiversity in these ecosystems.

Food Web Disruption: Coral reefs are critical components of marine food webs. When reefs degrade, it can disrupt the food chain, affecting the populations of species throughout the ecosystem.

Reduced Resilience: Healthy coral reefs are more resilient to environmental stressors, such as disease outbreaks and extreme weather events. Their degradation reduces the ecosystem’s ability to recover from such events.

The impact of coral reef degradation extend beyond the reefs themselves and have significant repercussions for both human communities and the broader aquatic ecosystems. Conservation efforts, sustainable management practices, and global actions to mitigate climate change are essential to protect coral reefs and maintain water security for both human and aquatic lives.

Whaling can have indirect impacts on water security for humans, although these effects are not typically the primary concern associated with whaling. The main concerns related to whaling are generally related to conservation and the ethical treatment of marine mammals. However, there are some ways in which whaling can indirectly affect water security:

Ecological Impacts:

Whales play important roles in marine ecosystems. They are known as “ecosystem engineers” because their activities, such as feeding and migration, contribute to the health and balance of marine ecosystems.

The removal of whales from these ecosystems through whaling can disrupt food webs and alter the distribution of species, potentially affecting fisheries that are important for human food security.

Fisheries Competition:

Some species of whales, such as baleen whales, are filter feeders that consume large quantities of plankton and small fish. In areas where commercial fisheries target similar prey species, there can be competition between whales and human fishing operations.

Overharvesting by either whales or humans can lead to reduced availability of prey species for the other, potentially impacting local fishing communities and food security.

Tourism Revenue:

Many countries rely on whale-watching tourism as a source of revenue. Healthy populations of whales contribute to the attractiveness of marine environments for tourism.

Whaling activities, especially when controversial or unsustainable, can negatively impact tourism and the income it generates for coastal communities.

Marine Conservation:

The practice of whaling has raised concerns about the conservation of whale species, especially those that are endangered or vulnerable.  Conservation efforts often require international cooperation and the establishment of marine protected areas, which can indirectly affect human activities in these areas, including fisheries.

It is important to note that in many parts of the world, commercial whaling has been significantly restricted or banned by international agreements such as the International Whaling Commission (IWC). The primary goals of these agreements are to conserve whale populations and ensure their sustainable management.

Whaling can have indirect impacts on water security for humans, primarily through its ecological and environmental consequences. While the immediate link between whaling and water security may not be apparent, several aspects connect the two:

Disruption of Marine Ecosystems:

Whaling can disrupt marine ecosystems by removing top predators from the food chain. Whales play a crucial role in regulating the populations of other marine species, particularly fish.  When whales are overexploited, it can lead to imbalances in the ecosystem, potentially affecting the abundance and distribution of fish stocks that are important for human fisheries and food security.

Biodiversity Loss:[l]

Whales are keystone species[li], meaning they have a disproportionately large impact on their ecosystems compared to their numbers. Their feces, for example, provide nutrients for phytoplankton, which form the base of marine food webs.

When whales are reduced in number due to whaling, it can lead to a cascade of effects, including changes in phytoplankton populations and reduced biodiversity.

Reduced biodiversity can impact the overall health and resilience of marine ecosystems, potentially affecting the sustainability of fisheries and the availability of seafood for human consumption.

Climate Change Mitigation:

Whales help sequester carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. They do this by consuming phytoplankton in surface waters and then defecating in deeper ocean layers, where the carbon is stored.

A decrease in whale populations can disrupt this carbon sequestration process and potentially contribute to higher levels of atmospheric CO2, exacerbating climate change.

Climate change, in turn, can have various impacts on water security, including altered precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and changes in water availability.

Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors:

In some regions, whaling has cultural and socioeconomic significance. Indigenous communities, for example, have relied on whaling for sustenance and cultural practices.

The decline in whale populations can affect these communities’ traditional ways of life and their access to important sources of nutrition.

While the direct link between whaling and water security may not be readily apparent, the ecological and environmental consequences of whaling can have indirect effects on the availability and sustainability of marine resources, which are vital for human water security, especially in coastal communities that depend on fisheries for their livelihoods and food supply. Conservation efforts and sustainable management practices are essential to mitigate these potential impacts and ensure the health of marine ecosystems.

In summary, while whaling itself is not a direct threat to water security for humans in terms of access to safe drinking water, it can have ecological and economic repercussions that indirectly affect the well-being and livelihoods of communities dependent on marine resources. Efforts to balance the conservation of whale species with the needs of human communities and sustainable fisheries are ongoing at the international level.

Another water scarcity, potential conflict hotspot, which has emerged recently is in Dominican Republic.  Haiti and the Dominican Republic share the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, and they have faced water-related challenges, including water scarcity and issues with water quality. The Dominican Republic and Haiti have a border dispute over a canal that would use water from the Massacre River[lii]. The canal[liii] was excavated by a Haitian farming group in 2021, but the Dominican president accused Haiti of trying to divert water and affecting Dominican farmers and the environment[liv]. The Dominican Republic announced the closure of all borders with Haiti in response to the canal[lv]. The two countries later formed a binational water commission and agreed not to act unilaterally[lvi]. The proposal for a canal along the border was intended to address these challenges by diverting water from sources in Haiti to areas in both countries that needed improved water supply.

Main Objectives:

The primary objective of the canal project was to provide a more reliable source of freshwater for agriculture, industry, and domestic use in both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The project aimed to address water-related issues such as drought and waterborne diseases, which are significant concerns in the region.

Environmental and Social Concerns:

Any large-scale water diversion project can have environmental and social impacts, and the proposed canal was not without controversy.

Environmental concerns included potential impacts on local ecosystems, wetlands, and water quality.

Social concerns revolved around potential displacement of communities and the need for careful management of water resources to ensure equitable distribution.

International Cooperation:

The project required cooperation between Haiti and the Dominican Republic, as well as potential support from international organizations and donor agencies.

It was viewed as a significant undertaking that required careful planning, funding, and coordination between the two countries.

Massive destruction has shattered the Libyan coastal city of Derna[lvii], home to about 100,000 people, where multistorey buildings on the river banks collapsed and houses and cars vanished in the raging floodwaters. Mediterranean Storm Daniel caused devastating floods in Libya that broke dams and swept away entire neighbourhoods.[lviii]   Emergency services under the divided country’s internationally recognised government reported an initial death toll of more than 2,300 in Derna alone and said more than 5,000 people remained missing while about 7,000 were injured. But officials from the rival government in eastern Libya said “thousands” more perished in the floods in Derna and that the death toll could surpass 10,000. The floods were caused by torrential rains from Storm Daniel, which made landfall in Libya on Sunday after earlier lashing Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey.  Derna, 250km (150 miles) east of Benghazi, is ringed by hills and bisected by what is normally a dry riverbed in summer, but which has turned into a raging torrent of mud-brown water that also swept away several major bridges.  “The death toll is huge and might reach thousands,” said Tamer Ramadan of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies[lix], adding that 10,000 people were missing.

Bottom Line is that the aim of water security is to make the most of water’s benefits for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[lx]  These risks include for example too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity) or poor quality (polluted) water. People who live with a high level of water security always have access to “an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods and production”. For example, access to WASH services [lxi](water, sanitation and hygiene) is one component of water security. Some organisations use the term water security more narrowly for water supply aspects only.

Policymakers and water managers seek to achieve water security outcomes that address economic, environmental and social equity concerns. These outcomes can include increasing economic welfare, enhancing social equity and reducing water related risks.

The author predicts that within the next two decades, countries will be waging wars with each other for water, due to its scarcity caused by ongoing global climate change, resulting in massive regional droughts or enormous devastating flooding, as it is happening presently.  It is important to remember that various wars and invasions in the past were due to acquisition of countries based on wealth, and slaves, then the focus shifted to colonial imperialism with Britain leading the wolf pack causing widespread oppression and suffering of humanity, in the countries these colonialists invaded.  Gradually the focus shifted to the acquisition of natural resources of the country, in terms of gold, diamonds, uranium and other material needed in the production of nuclear weapons, as well as oil for industrial use and fossil fuels for transport.  In this decade, the strategy has shifted resulting in a scramble for rare minerals, for electric vehicles.  However, the construction of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has already sowed the seeds of discontent in countries neighbouring Ethiopia, for future potential conflict.  This could lead to full scale war in the region within a decade.  Similar examples are evident globally, as drought and devastating flooding have caused severe water insecurity and scarcity in different countries, including Europe, where the rivers are running dry.  The only solution would be regional wars to ensure water security.

References:

[1] Personal quote by author, September 2023

[2] https://www.nato-pa.int/download-file?filename=/sites/default/files/2023-04/016%20CDS%2023%20E%20-%20FOOD%20SECURITY%20-%20DZEROWICZ%20REPORT.pdf

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster

[4] https://www.google.com/search?q=Pictures+of+water+insecurity&rlz=1C1YTUH_enZA1040ZA1040&oq=Pictures+of+water+insecurity&aqs=chrome..69i57j0i22i30j0i390i650l2.18917j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8#:~:text=There%20are%20many,agriculture%20for%20irrigation.

[5] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Sami

[6] https://www.aljazeera.com/program/people-power/2022/12/15/is-sami-culture-at-risk-from-responses-to-climate-change

[7] https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/arctic-tundra-biome

[8] https://www.aljazeera.com/program/people-power/2022/12/15/is-sami-culture-at-risk-from-responses-to-climate-change

[9] https://www.aljazeera.com/program/people-power/2023/9/20/iraqs-water-wars-part-1

[10] https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-capital-of-kenya.html

[11] https://mg.co.za/africa/2022-02-03-water-shortage-in-nairobi-slum-triggers-extortion-and-sextortion/

[12] https://www.concern.org.uk/news/kibera-look-inside-africas-largest-slum

[13] https://mg.co.za/africa/2022-02-03-water-shortage-in-nairobi-slum-triggers-extortion-and- /#:~:text=Through%20education%2C%20the,it%20was%20unpredictable.

[14] https://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/265143/icode/

[15] https://oceanofpdf.com/authors/sharon-m-draper/pdf-epub-the-battle-of-jericho-jericho-1-download/

[16] http://www.emersonkent.com/wars_and_battles_in_history/siege_of_syracuse.htm

[17] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)

[18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masada

[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)

[20] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza

[21] https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&mediaurl=https%3A%2F%2Fphotographylife.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F07%2FTurkey-2014-127-of-467edit.jpg&expw=2048&exph=1365&cbid=OLC.e2nHv7TPeIgx5w480x360&cbn=local&idpp=local&ypid=YN8184x2444379150553056389&usebfpr=0&eeptype=PhotoGroups&datagroup=local:datagroup.photos&photogroupname=AllPhotos&pagetag=AllPhotos&selectedindex=5&id=OLC.e2nHv7TPeIgx5w480x360&q=basilica%20cistern%20in%20istanbul&pseg=Local&noidpclose=0&form=LOCIMG&ajaxhist=0&ajaxserp=0&vt=0&sim=11

[22] https://web.archive.org/web/20160104193228/http://yerebatan.com/homepage/basilica-cistern/about-us.aspx

[23] https://www.basilica-cistern.com/

[24] https://spymovienavigator.com/filmclip_type/james-bond-and-karim-at-cistern/

[25] https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/art/drops-of-wisdom/article27298044.ece

[26] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alauddin_Khalji

[27] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_India

[28] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Diu_(1538)

[29] https://www.bing.com/search?q=british+colonization+of+india+timeline&qs=SC&pq=british+colonisation+of+india&sk=MT1SC1&sc=6-29&cvid=131E127494B1416D924E903600649B81&FORM=QBRE&sp=3&lq=0

[30] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan

[31] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington

[32] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople

[33] https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100045469

[34] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad

[35] https://www.bing.com/search?q=battle+of+stalingrad&filters=dtbk:%22MCFvdmVydmlldyFvdmVydmlldyEwZjAyNjYwNC1kZjhkLWVmZjQtZjY1Yi01OGQyMmE4MGU0NWM%3d%22+sid:%220f026604-df8d-eff4-f65b-58d22a80e45c%22+tphint:%22f%22&FORM=DEPNAV

[36] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)

[37] https://www.britannica.com/topic/Axis-Powers

[38] https://www.bing.com/alink/link?url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.britannica.com%2ftopic%2fGrand-Ethiopian-Renaissance-Dam&source=serp-local&h=y8GvgisF86DgcKPGdDwIY0A%2fDHBLU9ZpyeT4qXNRHKI%3d&p=lw_gbt&ig=C88892CBE0A74C31B5DA421D938A497F&ypid=YN8055x2467155825156263815

[39] https://www.thoughtco.com/how-much-of-your-body-is-water-609406#:~:text=The%20amount%20of%20water%20in%20the%20human%20body,dropping%20to%2065%25%20by%20one%20year%20of%20age.

[40] https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/reverse-causation/202006/what-are-cognitive-functions

[41] https://www.healthline.com/health/dehydration

[42] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination

[43] https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/files/wq-wwtp8-20.pdf

[44] https://southeastasiaglobe.com/water-recycling-singapore-focus-asean/

[45] https://www.watercorporation.com.au/Our-water/Groundwater/Groundwater-replenishment

[46] https://www.bing.com/alink/link?url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.wingoc.com.na%2f&source=serp-local&h=X7DtXDd3gdHd9ZGlhsXXavfDQLHb29eRC2KZNx7vtc4%3d&p=lw_gbt&ig=5F19159E79EB4F91B37A6C7C151009E0&ypid=YN8131x2915896556651011154

[47] https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/government/2023/08/21/dubai-plans-to-recycle-100-of-wastewater-by-2030/#:~:text=Wastewater%20is%20collected%20and%20processed,most%20areas%20of%20the%20city.

[48] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowpack

[49] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle

[50] https://earth.org/biodiversity-loss-definition-and-examples/

[51] https://homework.study.com/explanation/are-whales-a-keystone-species.html

[52] https://www.voanews.com/a/dominican-republic-to-close-border-with-haiti-over-canal-dispute-/7269422.html

[53] https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/diplomatic-crisis-over-a-river-threatens-border-closures-between-haiti-dominican-republic/ar-AA1gIIbh

[54] https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2023-09-14/dominican-republic-to-close-all-borders-despite-push-to-resolve-diplomatic-crisis

[55] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/dominican-republic-to-close-all-borders-with-haiti-in-a-dispute-over-a-canal/articleshow/103677020.cms

[56] https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/diplomatic-crisis-over-a-river-threatens-border-closures-between-haiti-dominican-republic/ar-AA1gIIbh

[57] https://www.bing.com/news/search?q=Libyan+Coastal+City+Of+Derna&qpvt=Libyan+coastal+city+of+Derna&FORM=EWRE

[58] https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2023/9/13/photos-the-aftermath-of-a-powerful-storm-and-deadly-floods-in-libya

[59] https://www.bing.com/news/search?q=%2c%e2%80%9d+Said+Tamer+Ramadan+Of+The+International+Federation+Of+Red+Cross+And+Red+Crescent+Societies&qpvt=%2c%e2%80%9d+said+Tamer+Ramadan+of+the+International+Federation+of+Red+Cross+and+Red+Crescent+Societies&FORM=EWRE

[60] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_security#

[61] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASH

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READ PART 1

Professor G. Hoosen M. Vawda (Bsc; MBChB; PhD.Wits) is a member of the TRANSCEND Network for Peace Development Environment.
Director: Glastonbury Medical Research Centre; Community Health and Indigent Programme Services; Body Donor Foundation SA.
Principal Investigator: Multinational Clinical Trials
Consultant: Medical and General Research Ethics; Internal Medicine and Clinical Psychiatry:UKZN, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine
Executive Member: Inter Religious Council KZN SA
Public Liaison: Medical Misadventures
Activism: Justice for All
Email: vawda@ukzn.ac.za

Tags: Commodification of Water, Privatized Water, Water, Water Rights, Water industry

This article originally appeared on Transcend Media Service (TMS) on 25 Sep 2023.

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