The Odyssey of Moses from Antiquity to Peace of Pesach

TRANSCEND MEMBERS, 28 Apr 2025

Prof Hoosen Vawda – TRANSCEND Media Service

This publication is suitable for general readership.  It is written on the occasion of the auspicious Hebrew calendar and Judaism: Passover, in good faith.  The author who is a Muslim, humbly apologies if there are any inaccuracies or misconceptions.  Readers are invited to comment on any points raised in the paper.

Parental guidance is recommended for minors, who may use this publication as a project, resource material.

 Introduction

Presently, the three branches of the Abrahamic faiths [1]observe extremely auspicious periods of spiritual upliftment Christianity observes, the 40 days of Lent leading up to the Holy Week and Easter Friday, when Jesus Christ[2], the persecuted Messiah was crucified. Islam completed their 30 days of total fasting for the month of Ramadan, culminating in the festival of Eid ul Fitr, [3] while Judaism observes 8 days of prayers and reflection encapsulating the escape from the bondage of the Pharaoh in Egypt to the Promised Land[4].  This period is called Pesach [5]and it symbolizes Prophet Moses, may Peace be upon him, taking his oppressed flock away from Egypt, following the Lord’s command, received at very short notice to evacuate.  This was the great Exodus, in which the Israelites, led by Moses, evacuating their ancestral land in the darkness of the night, following Gods command to do so.  This paper examines the entire odyssey, as a peace manifestation in antiquity to the Promised Land, and details, as well as compare the parallels between the three Abrahamic faiths in Biblical and current times.  It  important to note that Prophet Moses (Peace Be Upon Him) is the messenger of God, the Supreme and Divine, revered by all three faiths: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.[6]  Moses is mentioned directly, in the Quran, 136 times by name: مُوسَى (Musa).[7]  This count does not include pronouns, indirect references, or titles (like “the one we sent to Pharaoh”). When those are included, the total of 136 becomes even higher and is greater than any other prophets.

The publication also unpacks the Pesach, its origins, rituals, symbolism, and contributions to global peace.

1. Origins of Pesach

Pesach (Hebrew: פֶּסַח), or Passover, is one of the most sacred Jewish festivals, commemorating the Exodus of the Israelites from the Pharaoh’s slavery in Egypt (circa 13^th century BCE, as per tradition). The story is narrated in the Book of Exodus (Shemot)[8] in the Torah, the Hebrew holy scripture, equivalent to the Bible in Christianity and Quran in Islam.

• The Ten Plagues and the Exodus: Pharaoh refused to free the Israelites despite Moses’ demands. God sent ten plagues, the last being the death of the firstborn. The Israelites marked their doors with lamb’s blood so the Angel of Death would “pass over” their homes, hence  the period is called “Passover”.
• Matzah (Unleavened Bread)[9]: The Israelites left Egypt in such haste that their bread did not have time to rise. Thus, eating matzah symbolizes their hurried departure.

 

2. The 8-Day Observance [10] (Not 12 Days)

Passover lasts 7 days in Israel and 8 days in the Diaspora. The main rituals include:

1. Before Passover (Preparation)

• Bedikat Chametz (Search for Leaven): Removing all chametz (leavened food) from homes, symbolizing the removal of arrogance and impurity.
• Selling Chametz: Many Jews sell leftover chametz to non-Jews to avoid ownership during Pesach.

1. The Seder (First Two Nights, or One in Israel)

The Seder (Hebrew for “order”) is a ritual meal with symbolic foods arranged on the Seder Plate, each representing aspects of slavery and freedom:

Symbol	Meaning
Matzah	Unleavened bread (haste of Exodus)
Maror (Bitter Herbs)	Bitterness of slavery
Charoset (Sweet Paste)	Mortar used in forced labor
Karpas (Greens)	Spring & renewal, dipped in saltwater (tears)
Zeroa (Shank Bone)	Passover sacrifice
Beitzah (Egg)	Mourning & rebirth

• The Four Cups of Wine: Represent God’s four promises of redemption (Exodus 6:6-7).
• The Four Questions (Mah Nishtana): Asked by the youngest participant.
• Afikoman: [11]A hidden piece of matzah, symbolizing hope and redemption.

1. The Rest of Passover

• Eating only matzah and kosher-for-Passover foods.
• No work on the first two and last two days (in the Diaspora).
• Yizkor (Memorial Prayer) on the last day for departed souls.

 

3. Symbolism of Passover

• Freedom Over Oppression: A universal message of liberation from tyranny.
• Humility (Matzah): Flat bread represents humility, contrasting with the “puffed-up” ego (chametz).
• Intergenerational Storytelling: The Seder ensures the Exodus story is passed down.
• Hope & Redemption: The Cup of Elijah symbolizes future redemption.

 

4. Contributions to Global Peace

Passover’s teachings have influenced many movements:
✔ Abolition of Slavery: Inspired enslaved Africans and leaders like Harriet Tubman.
✔ Civil Rights Movement: Martin Luther King Jr. referenced Exodus in his speeches.
✔ Interfaith Dialogue: Many Christian traditions (like Maundy Thursday) connect to Passover (Last Supper was a Seder).

✔Universal Human Rights: The story reinforces the dignity of all people.

 

Conclusion

Passover is not just a Jewish festival but a timeless narrative of struggle, faith, and freedom that resonates globally. Its rituals and symbols remind us that oppression must never be tolerated and that hope and unity lead to redemption.

 

How do the Ethiopian Jews practice the period noting that the Ark is reportedly housed in that country.

 

The Ethiopian Jewish community, known as the Beta Israel (House of Israel), has a unique and ancient tradition of observing Pesach (Passover), deeply influenced by their isolation from mainstream Judaism for centuries. Their practices differ in some ways from Rabbinic Judaism, partly due to their reliance on the Torah (Orit in Ge’ez) without access to later Talmudic interpretations.

 

The belief that the Ark of the Covenant (Tabot) is housed in Axum, Ethiopia [12](at the Church of St. Mary of Zion) also plays a subtle but profound role in their religious identity, though the Ark itself is guarded by Christian monks and not directly involved in their Passover rituals.

 

How Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) Observe Passover[13]

1. Unique Name: “Fasika” (ፋሲካ)

• While “Pesach” is the Hebrew term, Ethiopian Jews call it Fasika (from the Greek “Pascha,” similar to Easter in Ethiopian Christianity).
• Their traditions are based on the literal interpretation of the Torah, as they were separated from Jewish halachic (legal) developments after the Babylonian exile.

2. Strict Removal of Chametz (Fermented Grain)

• Like other Jews, they remove chametz, but their definition is stricter—no grain-based foods at all (not just leavened ones).
• They avoid teff flour (a staple in Ethiopian cuisine) unless prepared specially for Passover.

3. Sacrificial Lamb (Unlike Modern Rabbinic Judaism)

• Most striking difference: Beta Israel slaughter a lamb on Erev Pesach (Passover Eve) and roast it whole, as described in Exodus 12.
  • This practice was abandoned in Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE).
  • The blood is smeared on doorposts in some communities, reenacting the original Passover.
• The meat is eaten with bitter herbs (maror) and matzah-like unleavened bread (kita).

4. No Traditional Seder Plate (But Symbolic Foods)

• They do not use a Seder plate as in the Ashkenazi/Sephardic tradition.
• Instead, they emphasize:
  • Roasted lamb (Kebbeh) – Symbolizing the Korban Pesach (Passover sacrifice).
  • Unleavened flatbread (Kita) – Similar to matzah but made from teff or barley.
  • Bitter greens (Koso or Senafich) – A local substitute for horseradish/maror.

5. Communal Prayer & Fasting

• Fast before Passover: Some observe a fast day before Passover, commemorating the suffering in Egypt.
• Prayers in Ge’ez & Amharic: Their liturgy includes psalms and Torah readings related to the Exodus.
• No Haggadah (as in Rabbinic Judaism): Instead, they recite oral traditions and biblical passages about liberation.

6. The Seventh Day (“Sigd” Connection)

• While not part of Passover, the Beta Israel’s Sigd festival [14](50 days after Yom Kippur) also emphasizes renewal of the covenant, showing their deep connection to Exodus themes.

 

The Ark of the Covenant and Its Influence

Ethiopian Jews (and Christians) believe the Ark (Tabot) resides in Axum, under the guard of a Christian monk. While the Beta Israel do not interact with it directly, its presence strengthens their sense of divine connection to Zion and ancient Israelite heritage.

• Symbolic Role: The Ark represents God’s presence, reinforcing their identity as the “true guardians” of Torah traditions.
• No Direct Ritual Link: The Ark is not used in Passover ceremonies, but its legendary presence in Ethiopia reinforces their historical claim as descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

Changes After Aliyah (Migration to Israel)

Since the 1980s–90s mass migration to Israel, many Beta Israel have adopted mainstream Jewish Passover practices:

✔ Using a Haggadah and Seder plate.

✔ Following Rabbinic laws (no lamb sacrifice, as it’s forbidden without the Temple).
✔ Blending traditions—some still eat kita (unleavened flatbread) alongside matzah.

 

Contribution to Global Jewish Unity

The Beta Israel’s Passover practices remind the world of:

• The diversity of Jewish traditions.
• The resilience of a community that preserved Torah without rabbinic texts for millennia.
• The shared hope for ultimate redemption, tied to Jerusalem and the Messianic era.

 

Final Thought: Their Passover is a powerful testimony to faith beyond borders—a community that kept the Exodus alive in the highlands of Africa, now reunited with the Jewish world.

The Story of Exodus in the Torah, Old Testament, and Quran

The Exodus—the liberation of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt—is a foundational narrative in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, each with unique perspectives but shared themes of divine intervention, faith, and freedom. Below is a comparative account with key scriptural references.

 

1. The Exodus in the Torah (Hebrew Bible)

The most detailed account comes from the Book of Exodus (Shemot) in the Torah.

1. Enslavement in Egypt

• The Israelites (descendants of Jacob) multiply in Egypt, and a new Pharaoh fears their power (Exodus 1:8-10).
• They are forced into brutal slavery:

“So they put slave masters over them to oppress them with forced labor… But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied.” (Exodus 1:11-12)

1. The Birth and Calling of Moses (Moshe)

• Moses is saved as a baby when his mother places him in a basket on the Nile (Exodus 2:1-10).
• God appears to him in the Burning Bush, commanding him to free the Israelites:

“I have indeed seen the misery of My people in Egypt… So now, go. I am sending you to Pharaoh to bring My people the Israelites out of Egypt.” (Exodus 3:7-10)

1. The Ten Plagues

Pharaoh refuses to let the Israelites go, so God sends ten plagues (Exodus 7-12), culminating in the death of the firstborn.

“At midnight, the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt… There was loud wailing in Egypt, for there was not a house without someone dead.” (Exodus 12:29-30)

1. Passover & the Exodus

• The Israelites mark their doors with lamb’s blood so the plague “passes over” them (Exodus 12:13).
• They flee Egypt in haste, carrying unleavened bread (matzah):

“The dough was without yeast because they had been driven out of Egypt and did not have time to prepare food for themselves.” (Exodus 12:39)

1. The Parting of the Red Sea

Pharaoh’s army pursues them, but God splits the Red Sea:

“Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and all that night the Lord drove the sea back with a strong east wind and turned it into dry land.” (Exodus 14:21)

The Israelites cross safely, but the Egyptians drown (Exodus 14:27-28).

 

2. The Exodus in the Christian Old Testament

The Christian Bible includes the same account in Exodus, but with additional references in the Psalms and Prophets:

• Psalm 105:26-38 summarizes the plagues and liberation.
• Isaiah 63:11-12 recalls the Red Sea miracle:

“Where is He who brought them through the sea… Who divided the waters before them?”

• Hebrews 11:27-29 (New Testament) praises Moses’ faith during the Exodus.

 

3. The Exodus in the Quran

The Quran refers to the Exodus in multiple Surahs, with slight variations.

1. Moses (Musa) and Pharaoh (Fir’awn)

• Moses is saved as a baby (similar to the Torah):

“We inspired the mother of Moses: ‘Suckle him, and then when you fear for him, cast him into the river…’” (Quran 28:7)

• God commands Moses to confront Pharaoh:

“Go to Pharaoh, for he has transgressed.” (Quran 20:24)

1. The Nine Signs (Plagues)

The Quran mentions nine plagues (some matching the Torah’s ten):

“We sent upon them floods, locusts, lice, frogs, and blood—as clear signs.” (Quran 7:133)

1. The Exodus & Drowning of Pharaoh

• The Israelites escape, and Pharaoh drowns while pursuing them:

“We took the Children of Israel across the sea, and Pharaoh and his soldiers pursued them in tyranny and enmity… So We saved Moses and those with him, and drowned the others.” (Quran 10:90-92)

• Pharaoh’s last-moment repentance?

“Now! When you had disobeyed before and been of the corrupters? Today We will preserve your body so you may be a sign to those after you.” (Quran 10:91-92)
(Some interpret this as Pharaoh’s body being preserved as a lesson.)

Key Differences Between Accounts

Aspect	Torah/Old Testament	Quran
Number of Plagues	10	9
Passover Lamb	Central (Exodus 12)	Not mentioned
Pharaoh’s Fate	Drowns (Exodus 14)	Drowns, body preserved (Quran 10:92)
Role of Aaron (Harun)	Helps Moses (Exodus 4:14-16)	Also a prophet (Quran 20:30-36)

 

Unifying Themes Across Scriptures

1. Divine Justice – God liberates the oppressed.
2. Faith in God’s Power – Moses/Musa trusts God despite Pharaoh’s might.
3. Miracles as Proof – Plagues, Red Sea, and manna demonstrate divine authority.
4. Legacy of Freedom – A moral lesson against tyranny.

 

Final Thought

The Exodus is not just a Jewish story but a universal narrative of faith and liberation, revered in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Each tradition adds depth, but the core message remains: God delivers those who trust in Him.

 

Comparative Analysis: Plagues, Red Sea, & Passover in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

The Exodus story is central to all three Abrahamic faiths, but each tradition presents unique theological emphases. Below is a detailed comparison of:

1. The Ten Plagues (Divine Judgment)
2. The Red Sea Miracle (Salvation & Faith)
3. Passover Rituals (Covenant & Liberation)

1. The Plagues: Divine Punishment vs. Signs

Aspect	Torah (Judaism)	Old Testament (Christianity)	Quran (Islam)
Number of Plagues	10 (Exodus 7–12)	Same as Torah	9 (Quran 7:133, 17:101)
Purpose	To break Pharaoh’s defiance	Same as Torah	As “clear signs” for Pharaoh (Quran 17:101)
Key Plagues Listed	Water→Blood, Frogs, Lice, Wild Beasts, Pestilence, Boils, Hail, Locusts, Darkness, Death of Firstborn	Same as Torah	Flood, Locusts, Lice, Frogs, Blood (Quran 7:133)
Hardening Pharaoh’s Heart	God hardens Pharaoh’s heart (Exodus 9:12)	Same as Torah	Pharaoh hardens his own heart (Quran 10:88)
Moral Lesson	God’s supremacy over Egyptian gods	Prefigures Christ’s victory over sin	Allah humbles tyrants who reject prophets

Key Difference:

• Judaism/Christianity: 10 plagues, with God actively hardening Pharaoh’s heart.
• Islam: 9 plagues, emphasizing Pharaoh’s own arrogance (no “divine manipulation”).

 

2. The Red Sea Miracle: Salvation & Faith

Aspect	Torah (Judaism)	Old Testament (Christianity)	Quran (Islam)
Event Description	Moses splits the sea with his staff (Exodus 14:21)	Same as Torah	Musa strikes sea, it parts (Quran 26:63)
Pharaoh’s Fate	Drowns with army (Exodus 14:28)	Same as Torah	Drowns, but body preserved as a “sign” (Quran 10:92)
Theological Meaning	Ultimate deliverance from slavery	Symbolizes baptism & salvation (1 Corinthians 10:1-2)	Proof of Allah’s power over arrogance
Miraculous Elements	Pillar of fire, cloud (Exodus 13:21-22)	Same as Torah	No pillar/fire, but Allah tells Musa to “strike the sea” (Quran 26:63)

Key Differences:

• Christianity: The Red Sea crossing is seen as a prefiguration of baptism (1 Cor. 10:1-2).
• Islam: Focuses on Pharaoh’s arrogance (kibr) and his body as a warning (Quran 10:92).
• Judaism: Celebrates the moment as the birth of Israel as a nation.

3. Passover (Pesach) vs. Christian Easter vs. Islamic Parallels

Aspect	Judaism (Pesach)	Christianity (Easter)	Islam
Origins	Exodus 12 (Lamb’s blood saves Israelites)	Last Supper = Passover Seder (Luke 22:15)	No direct equivalent, but Musa’s liberation is honored
Key Ritual	Seder meal, matzah, bitter herbs	Communion (Body/Blood of Christ)	Fasting on Ashura (10th Muharram, Sunni) or mourning (Shia)
Sacrificial Lamb	Central in Torah (Exodus 12:3)	Jesus as “Lamb of God” (John 1:29)	No lamb ritual; Eid al-Adha (separate event)
Theological Theme	Physical liberation from Egypt	Spiritual liberation from sin	Trust in Allah’s deliverance (Quran 2:49)

Key Differences:

• Judaism: Focuses on historical redemption (Exodus).
• Christianity: Shifts to Jesus as the Passover Lamb (1 Cor. 5:7).
• Islam: No Passover ritual, but Ashura (10th Muharram) commemorates Musa’s victory over Pharaoh (Sunni) or mourns Hussein (Shia).

Unifying Themes Across All Three Faiths

1. Divine Justice: God humbles oppressors (Pharaoh).
2. Faith in Miracles: Trust in God’s power to save.
3. Covenant Renewal: Passover (Judaism), Eucharist (Christianity), Ashura (Islam).

Contrasting Theological Emphases

• Judaism: National liberation.
• Christianity: Spiritual salvation through Christ.
• Islam: Submission to Allah’s will over tyranny.

Final Thought: While the Exodus narrative is shared, each faith interprets it through its own lens—history, prophecy, or moral lesson—yet all agree: God delivers the faithful.

 

The Identity of Pharaoh in the Exodus: Rameses II?

The Bible does not name the Pharaoh of the Exodus, but scholars often speculate it was Rameses II (Rameses the Great, 1279–1213 BCE) due to:

1. Exodus 1:11 mentions Israelites building the store-cities of Pithom and Raamses (likely Pi-Ramesses, Rameses II’s capital).
2. His long reign (66 years) and militaristic rule align with the Exodus narrative.
3. His firstborn son, Amun-her-khepeshef, died before him (could fit the 10th plague).

However, there’s no direct archaeological evidence linking Rameses II to the Exodus, leading to other theories (e.g., Thutmose III, Seti I).

 

The “Hardening of Pharaoh’s Heart” Controversy

1. Torah’s Account (Exodus 4–14)

• God hardens Pharaoh’s heart (Exodus 9:12, 10:20, 11:10).
• Pharaoh hardens his own heart (Exodus 8:15, 9:34).
  Theological tension: Does God override free will?

2. Christian Interpretations

• Paul (Romans 9:17–18) uses Pharaoh to argue God’s sovereignty:

“God raised Pharaoh up for this very purpose, to show His power.”

• Early Church Fathers (e.g., Augustine) saw it as proof of predestination.

3. Quran’s Perspective (Free Will)

• Pharaoh hardens his own heart (Quran 10:88–91):

“Pharaoh was arrogant in the land… He and his soldiers thought they would not be returned to Us.”

• No divine “hardening” Pharaoh’s arrogance is his own choice.

 

Did Pharaoh Drown? A Scientific & Scriptural Debate

1. Torah (Exodus 14:28)

• Clear: Pharaoh’s army drowns in the Red Sea.
• Implied: Pharaoh dies with them (Psalm 136:15 confirms).

2. Quran’s Unique Claim (Preservation of Body)

• Quran 10:90–92:

“We brought the Israelites across the sea… We saved Moses and those with him, and drowned the others. Today We will preserve your body as a sign for those after you.“

• Possible Link to Rameses II’s Mummy:
  • Rameses II’s mummy was found (1881) and is remarkably preserved.
  • Some Muslims argue this fulfills the Quranic prophecy.
  • Counterpoint: Rameses II died old (90+), not in battle—but his mummy’s survival is symbolic.

3. Secular History

• No Egyptian record of a drowned Pharaoh or mass slave exodus (Egyptians rarely recorded defeats).
• Rameses II’s mummy shows no drowning evidence (died of arthritis/infection).

 

Conclusion: Mystery & Faith

1. Pharaoh’s Identity: Likely Rameses II, but unprovable.
2. Hardened Heart:
   • Judaism/Christianity: Divine sovereignty vs. free will tension.
   • Islam: Pure free will—Pharaoh chose evil.
3. Drowning Paradox:
   • Bible: Pharaoh drowns.
   • Quran: Body preserved as a sign (linked to Rameses II’s mummy).

 

Final Thought: The Exodus Pharaoh remains a historical enigma, but the story’s power lies in its moral lesson: tyranny fails, faith triumphs.

 

Historical & Archaeological Evidence for the Exodus Narrative

The Exodus story is a cornerstone of faith for Jews, Christians, and Muslims, but direct archaeological proof remains elusive. However, some intriguing evidence and theories align with aspects of the biblical, Quranic, and historical records. Below is a breakdown of key elements:

1. Evidence for Moses (Musa) in History

• No direct archaeological record of Moses exists in Egyptian texts.
• Possible Linguistic Link: The name “Mose” (meaning “son of”) appears in Egyptian records (e.g., Thutmose = “Son of Thoth”). Some suggest “Moses” could be a shortened Egyptian name.
• Manetho’s Account (3rd c. BCE): An Egyptian historian mentions a rebel priest named Osarsiph (possibly Moses) leading lepers—a distorted, anti-Jewish version of Exodus.

Conclusion: No definitive proof, but the name and rebellion stories suggest a possible historical kernel.

 

2. Evidence for Pharaoh Rameses II as the Exodus Pharaoh

• Biblical Clue (Exodus 1:11): Israelites built Raamses and Pithom—cities linked to Pi-Ramesses, Rameses II’s capital.
• Rameses II’s Reign (1279–1213 BCE): Fits the traditional Exodus timeline (13th c. BCE).
• Death of His Firstborn: Rameses II’s eldest son, Amun-her-khepeshef, died before him (could align with the 10th plague).

BUT:

• No Egyptian records mention Moses, Hebrew slaves, or a mass exodus.
• Rameses II died naturally (mummy shows no drowning).

Alternative Pharaoh Theories:

• Thutmose III (1479–1425 BCE): [15]Some argue the Exodus occurred earlier.
• Merneptah (1213–1203 BCE)[16]: His Merneptah Stele (1208 BCE) mentions “Israel” as a people (earliest non-biblical reference), but after the supposed Exodus.

 

3. Parting of the Red Sea: Natural Explanations[17]?

The Bible (Exodus 14) and Quran (26:63) describe a miraculous sea-splitting. Possible scientific theories:

1. “Reed Sea” (Yam Suph) Misinterpretation?[18]

• Hebrew Yam Suph may mean “Sea of Reeds”—a shallow marsh (e.g., Lake Manzala, Nile Delta).
• A strong wind could have exposed land temporarily (Exodus 14:21 mentions an “east wind”).

1. Volcanic/Earthquake Event (Thera Eruption, ~1600 BCE)?

• Some link the plagues and sea event to Santorini’s eruption, causing tsunamis and climate disruptions.
• Problem: Timeline doesn’t match Rameses II’s era.

1. Gulf of Aqaba Crossing Theory

• Some explorers claim chariot wheels found underwater near Nuweiba, Saudi Arabia—but no verified archaeological proof.

Conclusion: No direct evidence, but natural phenomena could have inspired the story.

 

4. The Ten Plagues: Environmental Chain Reaction?

Some scientists propose a domino effect from climate change or volcanic activity:

Plague	Possible Natural Cause
Nile → Blood	Toxic algae (red tide) or volcanic silt.
Frogs	Algae drives frogs ashore.
Lice/Flies	Decaying frogs attract insects.
Livestock Death	Spread of anthrax or other diseases.
Hail & Fire	Volcanic lightning (Thera eruption).
Locusts	Climate disruption.
Darkness	Ash cloud or sandstorm.

Problem: No Egyptian records mention such disasters in Rameses II’s reign.

 

5. The Staff of Moses (Aaron’s Rod in Islam)

• No archaeological evidence of the staff exists.
• Symbolic Importance: In all three faiths, it represents divine authority:
  • Torah: Turns into a snake (Exodus 4:2–4).
  • Quran: Swallows Pharaoh’s magicians’ tricks (Quran 20:17–23).
  • Christianity: Appears in Hebrews 9:4 as a relic in the Ark.

Folklore: The “Staff of Moses” is claimed to be in Topkapi Palace (Istanbul), [19]but no verification exists.

 

6. The Ark of the Covenant (Linked to Exodus)

• Beta Israel[20] (Ethiopian Jews) [21]claim it was taken to Axum.
• No archaeological proof, but the Church of St. Mary of Zion guards a replica.

 

Final Verdict: Faith vs. Archaeology

• No direct evidence confirms Exodus as described in scripture.
• Possible historical core: A smaller group of Semitic slaves (Hyksos descendants?) may have escaped Egypt, inspiring the story.
• Theological Importance: The Exodus is primarily a faith narrative about God’s deliverance, not a history textbook.

Key Takeaways:

1. Moses: No proof, but Egyptian names like “Mose” exist.
2. Rameses II: Best candidate, but no drowning evidence.
3. Red Sea: Natural explanations possible, but no chariot wheels found.
4. Plagues: Environmental theories exist, but no records.
5. Staff/Ark: No physical evidence—relics are symbolic. While its exact whereabouts remain shrouded in mystery, the most widely accepted claim is that the Ark of the Covenant is currently housed in Ethiopia, specifically within the Chapel of the Tablet at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Axum.[22], [23]

 

The Hyksos Exodus[24]: A Possible Historical Parallel to the Biblical Exodus

Hyksos theory, which some scholars suggest may have influenced the Exodus narrative.

 

1. Who Were the Hyksos?

• Semitic rulers of Egypt (c. 1650–1550 BCE): The Hyksos (Egyptian: Heqa-khasut, “rulers of foreign lands”) were Canaanite or Levantine people who controlled northern Egypt (Avaris) during the Second Intermediate Period.
• Advanced warriors: Introduced chariots, composite bows, and new fortification techniques.
• Expelled by Ahmose I (1550 BCE):[25] The native Egyptian Pharaoh Ahmose I defeated and drove them out, reuniting Egypt (start of the New Kingdom).

 

Hyksos vs. Biblical Exodus: Key Parallels

Aspect	Hyksos Expulsion (1550 BCE)	Biblical Exodus (~13th c. BCE?)
Foreign rulers/slaves	Semitic rulers in Egypt	Hebrews enslaved in Egypt
Violent expulsion	Driven out by Pharaoh Ahmose I	Escape after plagues & Red Sea
Route	Likely fled to Canaan (later Israel)	Wilderness journey to Canaan
Timing	1550 BCE (too early for Rameses II)	Traditionally linked to 1200s BCE

Problem: The Hyksos were rulers, not slaves, and their expulsion predates Moses by ~200 years.

Why Some Scholars Link Them to Exodus

• Manetho’s Account (3rd c. BCE): Egyptian historian Manetho claimed the Hyksos were “lepers” led by Osarsiph (a possible Moses parallel)—but this is widely seen as anti-Jewish propaganda.
• Cultural Memory Theory: The Hyksos’ expulsion may have merged with later Hebrew oral traditions, reshaping into the Exodus story.

Conclusion: The Hyksos expulsion is not the Exodus, but it may have contributed to the narrative’s development.

 

2. The Staff of Moses in Topkapi Palace: Fact or Legend?

Staff of Moses (Asā-e Mūsā) in Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.

1. The Claim

• Ottoman Tradition: The staff was allegedly brought from Arabia to Medina, then to Istanbul via the Hijaz Railway (before T.E. Lawrence sabotaged tracks in WWI).
• Displayed in Topkapi: Alongside other relics (e.g., Prophet Muhammad’s cloak, sword).

1. Historical Problems

1. No Early Records: The staff isn’t mentioned in Islamic texts as a preserved relic.
2. Multiple “Staffs”:
   • The Cave of Moses (Nebi Musa, West Bank) also claims to house his staff.
   • Ethiopia’s Ark of the Covenant legend includes a staff.
3. Symbolic vs. Literal: The Quran and Bible treat the staff as a miracle tool, not a preserved artifact.

1. Likely Origin of the Topkapi Staff

• Medieval Relic Trade: Crusader and Islamic empires collected biblical relics for political legitimacy.
• Ottoman Propaganda: Sultans displayed such relics to bolster their authority as caliphs.

Verdict: A revered symbol, but no verifiable link to the historical Moses.

 

 

3. Lawrence of Arabia & the Hijaz Railway

T.E. Lawrence (“Lawrence of Arabia”) blowing up tracks—this is historically accurate!

• The Hijaz Railway (1900–1908): Built by the Ottomans to connect Damascus to Medina.
• Lawrence’s Sabotage (1916–1918): He led Arab Revolt forces to destroy railway lines, crippling Ottoman supply routes.
• Last Train Theory: If the staff was transported to Istanbul, it would have been before 1916 (when Lawrence’s attacks intensified).

Lawrence’s exploits were dramatized in Lawrence of Arabia (1962).

Final Synthesis: History vs. Scripture

1. Hyksos Exodus: A historical expulsion of Semitic rulers, possibly influencing Exodus traditions.
2. Staff of Moses: A symbolic relic, not provably authentic—Topkapi’s artifact reflects medieval relic culture.
3. Archaeology & Faith: While evidence is scarce, the Exodus story’s power lies in its spiritual meaning, not just historicity.

The Osarsiph-Moses Connection & Other “Lost Exodus” Theories

Manetho’s Osarsiph legend and other theories that blur the lines between history, propaganda, and biblical tradition.

1. Manetho’s Osarsiph: A Distorted Moses?[27]

Who Was Manetho?

• An Egyptian priest (3rd century BCE) who wrote Aegyptiaca, a history of Egypt for Greek rulers.
• His work survives only in fragments, quoted by Josephus (Jewish historian, 1st century CE), who disputed his claims.

The Osarsiph Story (Anti-Exodus Propaganda)

Manetho’s account (as cited by Josephus in Against Apion):

1. Pharaoh Amenophis (possibly Akhenaten) wanted to “see the gods.” A prophet told him to expel lepers to purify Egypt.
2. 80,000 lepers were sent to quarries, led by a renegade priest named Osarsiph (later renamed Moses).
3. Osarsiph allied with the Hyksos (invaders who had ruled Egypt centuries earlier) and terrorized Egypt until Pharaoh drove them out.

Parallels to Moses

• Name: “Osar-” (Osiris) + “-siph” (Joseph?) may echo “Moses” (Egyptian “mose” = “son of”).
• Leader of Outcasts: Like Moses leading Hebrew slaves.
• Expulsion Narrative: Similar to Exodus, but framed as Egypt’s victory over foreign lepers.

Why Did Manetho Tell This Story?

• Anti-Jewish Sentiment: Written during Hellenistic rule, it painted Jews as impure rebels (a trope later used in Roman antisemitism).
• Political Legitimacy: Justified Egyptian nationalism against foreign influence.

Josephus’ Rebuttal:

• Called Manetho’s account “ridiculous” and “a malicious lie.”
• Argued the Hyksos were not Jews, and Moses lived long after the Hyksos era.

Key Takeaway:
Manetho’s Osarsiph is not a historical Moses, but proof that Exodus-like stories were politicized in antiquity.

 

2. Other “Lost Exodus” Theories
3. The Ahmose Tempest Stele (1550 BCE)

• A real Egyptian inscription by Pharaoh Ahmose I (who expelled the Hyksos).
• Describes a cataclysmic storm (darkness, floods, chaos)—some link it to the 10th Plague or Red Sea event.
• Problem: Dates to 1550 BCE, far earlier than biblical Exodus timelines.

1. The Berlin Pedestal (1446 BCE Theory)[28]

• A hieroglyphic fragment mentions “Israel” (or a similar name) circa 1446 BCE—close to the traditional “early Exodus” date.
• Debate: Many scholars read it as “Jezreel” or doubt its relevance.

1. The Papyrus Ipuwer (7th Plague Parallel?)[29]

• An Egyptian text (c. 1850 BCE, copied later) laments:

“The river is blood… plague is throughout the land… the poor have become rich.”

• Similarities to Exodus: Some argue it describes plague-like chaos.
• Problem: It’s a poem about societal collapse, not a historical record.

1. The “Danaans” as Sea Peoples[30]

• Some link the Denyen (a Sea People group) to the Tribe of Dan in Israel.
• Theory: A group of Sea Peoples (c. 1200 BCE) could have merged with Hebrews, influencing Exodus lore.
• Weakness: No direct evidence connects them to Moses.

 

3. The “Moses” Name Mystery

Egyptian Roots:

• “Moses” = Egyptian “mose” (“son of”), e.g., Thutmose (“Son of Thoth”), Ramesses (“Son of Ra”).
• Suggests Moses had an Egyptian name, later Hebraized (Exodus 2:10 says Pharaoh’s daughter named him).

Missing from Egyptian Records:

• No pharaonic records mention a rebel prince named Moses.
• Possible Reason: Egyptians erased embarrassing defeats (e.g., the Hyksos, Sea Peoples).

4. The Topkapi Staff Revisited

Could It Be Authentic?

• Unlikely, but its journey reflects interfaith relic culture:
  1. Jewish Tradition: The staff was buried with Moses (Deuteronomy 34:6).
  2. Islamic Lore: Some Sufis claim it passed to Prophet Muhammad via hidden chains (silsila).
  3. Ottoman Relic Politics: Sultans used it to claim divine legitimacy (like Christian kings with the Holy Grail).

Lawrence of Arabia’s Role

• The Hijaz Railway (Damascus to Medina) was bombed in 1916–1918 to weaken the Ottomans.
• If the staff was moved to Istanbul, it would’ve been before WWI—but no records confirm this.

Final Synthesis: History as a Mosaic

1. Manetho’s Osarsiph: A hostile retelling of Exodus, blending Hyksos lore with anti-Jewish tropes.
2. Archaeological Clues: The Tempest Stele, Ipuwer, Berlin Pedestal hint at some historical chaos, but no smoking gun for Moses.
3. Moses’ Staff: A symbol of faith, not provable history—yet its cultural power endures.

For the Devout: The Exodus’ truth lies in its spiritual meaning—liberation from oppression.
For the Historian: The story likely merges multiple memories of Semitic struggles in Egypt.

 

Quranic verses describing Allah’s conversation with Musa (Moses) and the miracle of his staff turning into a serpent:

1. Allah Speaks to Musa at the Sacred Valley (Tuwa)[31]

Surah Ta-Ha (20:11-16):[32]

“But when he came to it, he was called, ‘O Moses! Indeed, I am your Lord, so remove your sandals. Indeed, you are in the sacred valley of Tuwa. And I have chosen you, so listen to what is revealed. Indeed, I am Allah. There is no deity except Me, so worship Me and establish prayer for My remembrance.'”

Surah Al-Qasas (28:30):[33]

“But when he came to it, he was called from the right side of the valley in the blessed spot—from the tree: ‘O Moses, indeed I am Allah, Lord of the worlds.’”

 

2. The Miracle of the Staff Turning into a Serpent

Surah Ta-Ha (20:17-23):[34]

“And what is that in your right hand, O Moses?’
He said, ‘It is my staff; I lean upon it, and I bring down leaves for my sheep, and I have therein other uses.’

Allah said, ‘Throw it down, O Moses.’

So he threw it, and suddenly it was a serpent, moving swiftly.
Allah said, ‘Take it and fear not; We will return it to its former condition.’
‘And press your hand to your side; it will come out white without disease—another sign.’”

 

Surah An-Naml (27:10-12):[35]

“And throw down your staff.’ But when he saw it moving as if it were a snake, he turned in flight and did not return.

‘O Moses, fear not. Indeed, in My presence the messengers do not fear.’
‘But whoever has done wrong and then replaced evil with good—indeed, I am Forgiving and Merciful.’
‘And put your hand into the opening of your garment; it will come out white without harm.’”

 

Surah Al-A’raf (7:107-108):[36]

“So [Moses] threw his staff, and suddenly it was a serpent, manifest.
And he drew out his hand, and there it was, white to the beholders.”

 

Key Themes in These Verses:

1. Divine Commissioning: Allah directly speaks to Musa, appointing him as a prophet.
2. Two Miracles:
   • The Staff → Serpent: Proving Allah’s power over nature.
   • White Hand (without illness): A sign of purity and divine authority.
3. Musa’s Fear: His initial reaction (fleeing from the serpent) shows human vulnerability, making him a relatable prophet.

 

Comparison with the Torah (Exodus 4:2-7)

The Quran’s account closely parallels the Torah’s version but with subtle differences:

• Quran: Focuses on Musa’s emotional reaction (fear) and Allah’s reassurance.
• Torah: Includes a third sign (water turning to blood) not mentioned in the Quran.

Why This Matters:

• In Islam, Musa’s story emphasizes submission (Islam) to Allah’s will, even when miracles seem frightening.
• In Judaism/Christianity, the staff symbolizes God’s power over Pharaoh.

 

Does the White hand of Moses signify leprosy or not? Why did it turn white and what is the symbolic significance? Moses asked God for his brother Aaron to accompany him to see the Pharaoh as Moses had a stammer?

 

1. The White Hand of Moses: Leprosy or Divine Sign?

Quranic Account:

In Surah Ta-Ha (20:22-23) and Surah Al-A’raf (7:108), Allah commands Musa (Moses) to place his hand under his arm, and when he withdraws it, it appears radiant white without disease:

“And press your hand to your side; it will come out white without disease—another sign.” (Quran 20:22)

Key Interpretations:

• Not Leprosy: Islamic scholars unanimously reject the idea that it was leprosy (unlike some Biblical interpretations).
  • The Quran explicitly states without harm/disease.
  • Tafsir Ibn Kathir explains it as a pure, luminous whiteness, symbolizing divine power.
• Symbolism:
  • Purity & Authority: The white hand contrasts with the serpent (power over evil).
  • Miraculous Proof: Like the staff, it validated Musa’s prophethood before Pharaoh.

Comparison with the Bible (Exodus 4:6-7):

• The Torah describes Moses’ hand turning “leprous as snow” before being healed—a test of faith.
• The Quran omits the “disease” aspect, focusing only on the miracle’s grandeur.

 

2. Moses’ Speech Impediment & Request for Harun (Aaron)

Quranic Verses:

Musa, aware of his speech difficulty, asks Allah for Harun’s support:

1. Surah Ta-Ha (20:25-32):

“Musa said, ‘My Lord! Expand my chest for me, and ease my task for me. And untie the knot from my tongue that they may understand my speech. And appoint for me a helper from my family, Harun, my brother. Strengthen me through him and let him share my task.’”

1. Surah Al-Qasas (28:34):

“And my brother Harun is more eloquent than me in speech, so send him with me as a helper to confirm me. Indeed, I fear they will deny me.”

Why This Matters:

• Divine Accommodation: Allah grants Musa’s request, showing compassion for human weakness.
• Brotherhood in Prophethood: Harun becomes a co-prophet, emphasizing unity in mission.

Biblical Parallel (Exodus 4:10-16):

• Similarly, Moses calls himself “slow of speech,” and God appoints Aaron as his spokesman.

 

3. Symbolic & Theological Significance
4. The White Hand

• Against Pharaoh’s Sorcery: While Pharaoh’s magicians used illusions, Musa’s miracles were undeniably divine.
• Light vs. Darkness: Whiteness symbolizes truth and guidance, opposing Pharaoh’s tyranny.

1. Musa’s Stammer & Harun’s Role

• Humility Over Eloquence: Musa’s reliance on Harun shows prophets need not be perfect—divine help suffices.
• Precedent for Leadership: In Islam, leaders (like caliphs) can delegate tasks based on skills.

 

Final Answer:

1. The white hand was NOT leprosy—it was a supernatural sign of purity and power (Quran 20:22).
2. Moses’ stammer is mentioned in Surah Ta-Ha 20:25-32 and Al-Qasas 28:34, where he requests Harun’s aid.
3. Symbolism:
   • White Hand = Divine authority.
   • Stammer + Harun = Trust in Allah’s plan despite flaws.

 

The White Hand of Moses, His Speech, and Aaron’s Role – Symbolism & Theological Nuances

Quranic precision, historical context, and mystical insights.

 

1. The White Hand of Moses: Divine Radiance vs. Biblical Leprosy
2. Quranic Clarity: A Luminous Miracle (آيَةً بَيْضَاءَ)

Allah describes Musa’s hand as:

“بَيْضَاءُ مِنْ غَيْرِ سُوءٍ”

“White without illness” (Quran 20:22, 7:108, 26:33, 27:12)

Key Points:

• “بَيْضَاء” (baydā’): Not just “white” but brilliant, luminous—like the moon (Quran 74:32-34) or purified silver.
• “غَيْرِ سُوءٍ” (ghayri sū’in): Explicitly rejects disease (unlike Exodus 4:6-7’s “leprous as snow”).

2. Why Did It Turn White?

Islamic Exegesis (Tafsir):

• Al-Tabari: It symbolized purity (ṭahāra) and Allah’s power to transform.[37]
• Ibn Kathir: The whiteness dazzled observers, proving it was no trick.[38]
• Sufi View (Rumi): The hand’s radiance reflected inner enlightenment—Musa’s soul purified by divine speech.[39]

Contrast with Torah:

• In Exodus 4:6, Moses’ hand becomes leprous and is healed—a test of faith.
• The Quran omits the “disease” phase, focusing only on the miracle’s awe.

3. Symbolic Meaning

Symbol	Interpretation
White Hand	Divine authority over Pharaoh’s illusions (Quran 7:117-119).
Serpent Staff	Power over falsehood (Pharaoh’s magicians’ ropes/snakes).
Together	Dual signs: dominion (serpent) and purity (hand)—balanced prophethood.

 

1. Moses’ Speech & Aaron’s Appointment: Divine Compassion
2. Musa’s Humble Admission (Quran 20:27-28)

“Untie the knot from my tongue, that they may understand my speech.”

Analysis:

• “عُقْدَةً” (ʿuqda): A “knot” implies lifelong speech difficulty, not mere nervousness.
• Why a Stammer?
  • Al-Qurtubi: To show prophets rely on Allah’s strength, not eloquence.
  • Modern Lens: Possible trauma from fleeing Egypt (Exodus 2:15) or divine design to emphasize substance over style.

2. Aaron’s Role: Brother & Spokesman

Quran 28:34-35:

“My brother Aaron is more eloquent than me… Allah said: ‘We will strengthen you through him.’”

Theological Lessons:

1. Teamwork in Prophethood: Even prophets need support (cf. Prophet Muhammad & Abu Bakr).
2. Divine Accommodation: Allah answers Musa’s plea, showing mercy to human limits.
3. Anti-Tyranny Message: Pharaoh mocked disabilities (Quran 43:52), but Allah elevates the sincere.

Biblical Parallel (Exodus 4:14-16):

• Similar dialogue, but the Quran adds Musa’s fear of being denied (28:34), highlighting his humanity.

 

III. Mystical (Sufi) & Shi’a Perspectives

1. Sufi Symbolism: The White Hand as Inner Light

• Rumi’s Mathnawi: The hand’s whiteness represents annihilation (fanā) of the ego in divine light.
• Ibn Arabi: The serpent (worldly power) and white hand (spiritual purity) show balance between dunya and haqq.

2. Shi’a View: Aaron’s Succession Parallel

• Just as Harun was Musa’s deputy (khalīfa), Imam Ali was Muhammad’s successor (Hadith of Manzila).
• The white hand echoes Imam Ali’s miraculous strength (e.g., lifting the gate of Khaybar).[40]

 

1. Summary: Why These Details Matter

1. Against Pharaoh’s Arrogance: Musa’s “flaws” (stammer) and miracles (white hand) humiliate tyranny.
2. Divine Mercy: Allah adapts to human needs—He gives Musa Harun, just as He gave Maryam (Mary) a stream (Quran 19:24).
3. Universal Lesson: True power lies in sincerity, not perfection.

Final Reflection:
The Quran’s Musa is relatable yet majestic—a stuttering shepherd given cosmic signs, proving Allah chooses the weak to humble the strong (Quran 28:5).

 

Christian Ascetic and Mystical Views on Moses’ Hand [41], [42]

In Christian tradition—particularly in ascetic, monastic, and mystical writings—Moses’ leprous-then-healed hand (Exodus 4:6–7) is interpreted as a symbol of purification, divine power, and spiritual transformation. Unlike the Quran’s emphasis on the hand’s radiant whiteness without disease, Christian exegesis often focuses on the temporary affliction of leprosy as a metaphor for sin, healing, and prophetic authority.

1. Biblical Account (Exodus 4:6–7)

“Then the Lord said, ‘Put your hand inside your cloak.’ So Moses put his hand into his cloak, and when he took it out, the skin was leprous—it had become as white as snow. Then God said, ‘Put your hand back into your cloak.’ So Moses put his hand back into his cloak, and when he took it out, it was restored, like the rest of his flesh.”

Key Themes in Christian Interpretation:

1. Leprosy as Sin or Corruption
   • Early Church Fathers (e.g., Origen, Gregory of Nyssa) saw the leprous hand as a symbol of:
     • Humanity’s fallen state (before divine grace).
     • Moses’ own need for purification before leading Israel.
   • The healing symbolized baptismal regeneration (death to sin, rebirth in Christ).
2. A Sign of Divine Authority Over Death
   • St. Ambrose: Compared Moses’ hand to Christ’s power over decay (e.g., raising Lazarus).[43]
   • Byzantine hymns link it to Christ’s resurrection: “As Moses’ hand was restored, so Christ’s flesh knew no corruption.”[44]
3. Ascetic Parallel: Suffering Before Glory
   • Monastic writers (e.g., St. John Climacus) used it to teach:[45]
     • Purification requires trials (like the leprous phase).
     • Obedience leads to restoration (Moses had to trust God’s command).

2. Contrast with the Quran’s “White Without Disease”

Aspect	Christian View (Exodus 4:6–7)	Islamic View (Quran 20:22, 7:108)
Hand’s Condition	Leprous → Healed	Immaculate white (no disease)
Symbolism	Sin → Redemption	Pure divine power
Focus	Process of purification	Instant miracle
Theological Lesson	Grace transforms brokenness	Allah’s signs transcend human flaws

 

Why the Difference?

• Christianity embraces suffering as redemptive (cf. Christ’s wounds).
• Islam emphasizes Allah’s absolute power without intermediary decay.

 

3. Mystical & Allegorical Readings
4. St. Gregory of Nyssa (4th c. CE)[46]

In “The Life of Moses,” Gregory interprets the hand as:

• The soul’s journey: Leprosy = attachment to the world; healing = union with God.
• A prototype of Christ’s resurrection: “Flesh restored” prefigures glorified bodies.

1. Syrian Ascetic Tradition (St. Ephrem the Syrian)[47]

• The cloak (bosom) = the hidden life of prayer; the hand’s transformation = grace working in secrecy.

1. Medieval Monasticism (St. Bernard of Clairvaux)[48]

• Compared the hand’s healing to monastic repentance:
  • Leprosy = Recognition of sin.
  • Restoration = Divine absolution.

 

4. Modern Christian Reflections

1. Protestant Preaching (Luther, Calvin)
   • Focused on Moses’ reluctance (Exodus 4:10–13) as a lesson in surrendering weaknesses to God.
   • The hand miracle proved God qualifies the called.
2. Eastern Orthodox Icons
   • Moses’ hand is never depicted as leprous in icons—only as radiant or holding the tablets, emphasizing the resurrected state.
3. Liberation Theology
   • The leprous hand → healed symbolizes oppressed people’s liberation (Exodus as a paradigm for justice).

 

Conclusion: Two Lenses on Moses’ Hand

1. Christian Asceticism:
   • Leprosy = Sin/Suffering → Healing = Salvation (A process mirroring Christ’s death/resurrection).
   • Teaches humility, purification, and trust in divine transformation.
2. Islamic Narrative:
   • White hand = Unblemished divine power (No “negative” phase).
   • Focuses on Allah’s absolute perfection and the immediacy of miracles.

 

Final Thought: Both traditions agree the hand was a sign of God’s authority, but Christianity embraces the tension of decay-to-glory, while Islam transcends it.

 

Scientific & Medical Perspectives on the 10 Plagues of Egypt

While there’s no direct proof of the biblical/Quranic plagues, scientists have proposed natural explanations based on climate, geology, and archaeology. Recent mummy discoveries of “mummies”) add intriguing context.

 

1. Could the Plagues Have Happened? Natural Theories
2. Volcanic Eruption (Thera/Santorini, c. 1600 BCE)[49]

• Linked to the Hyksos period (pre-Exodus).
• Effects:
  1. Nile → Blood (1st Plague): Ash/iron oxide turned water red (toxic algae Pfiesteria could also cause this).
  2. Frogs (2nd Plague): Poisoned water drove frogs ashore.
  3. Lice/Flies (3rd–4th): Decaying frogs bred insects.
  4. Livestock Death (5th): Anthrax from dead frogs.
  5. Hail & Fire (7th): Volcanic lightning (Thera’s eruption had pyroclastic surges).
  6. Darkness (9th): Ash blotted out the sun.

Problem: Thera erupted ~1600 BCE, too early for Rameses II (Exodus traditionally dated to ~1200s BCE).

1. Climate Chain Reaction (Drought → Algae → Epidemics)

• Nile’s Annual Flood Disruption:
  • Low floods → Stagnant water → Algal blooms (red tide = “blood”).
  • Frog die-off → Insects → Disease (lice, boils, livestock death).
  • Locusts (8th Plague): Common after droughts.

1. Firstborn Death (10th Plague): Natural Causes?

• Theory 1: Mycotoxins (mold on grain) killed eldest sons (they ate first).
• Theory 2: Carbon monoxide from volcanic gases settled low (firstborn slept on bottom beds).
• Mummy Evidence: Some mummies show trauma (e.g., Prince Pentawer, possible suicide post-Exodus chaos).

 

2. Archaeological Evidence: Mummies & Trauma[50]
3. Fractured Legs (Post-Mortem Damage?)

• The mummy of Seqenenre Tao (c. 1550 BCE) shows brutal head wounds, possibly from battle.
• Leg fractures in mummies (like Merneptah’s son) are often post-mortem, caused by tomb robbers or modern handling.

**B. Rameses II’s Mummy (No Drowning Signs)

• Well-preserved (1213 BCE death), but no evidence of drowning (contra Quran 10:92’s “preserved body”).
• Firstborn Son’s Death: Amun-her-khepeshef died before Rameses II—could align with the 10th plague.

**C. Merneptah Stele (1208 BCE): “Israel” Mentioned

• Earliest non-biblical reference to Israel—but after the Exodus would’ve occurred.

 

3. Why No Direct Egyptian Records?

• Pharaonic Propaganda: Egyptians rarely recorded defeats (e.g., no Hyksos expulsion details).
• Possible Erasure: If the Exodus happened under a minor pharaoh, records may be lost.

 

4. Medical Analysis of the Plagues

Plague	Possible Scientific Cause	Medical Impact
1. Blood	Algal bloom (red tide) or volcanic iron oxide.	Water toxicity → Frogs flee (Plague 2).
6. Boils	Mycobacterium (skin infections) or anthrax.	Painful lesions (Exodus 9:9–11).
10. Firstborn	Mycotoxins or CO poisoning (see above).	Selective mortality in eldest.

 

Conclusion: Science Meets Scripture

1. No “Smoking Gun”: No evidence confirms the plagues exactly as described, but natural disasters could have inspired the narrative.
2. Mummies Hint at Chaos: Fractures, violent deaths (e.g., Seqenenre Tao), and infant mummies align with plague-era turmoil.
3. Faith vs. History: For believers, the plagues are divine miracles; for scientists, a cultural memory of ecological crises.

 

Final Thought: The plagues’ power lies in their moral message—oppression invites divine justice. Whether literal or symbolic, they remain a universal warning.

 

Tradition Engage with the Plagues & Pharaoh’s Fate

Judaism’s Passover Seder and Islamic teachings memorialize the plagues and Pharaoh’s downfall—blending ritual, theology, and moral lessons.

 

1. Passover Seder: The Plagues as a Call to Justice
2. Reciting the 10 Plagues

During the Seder, Jews dip a finger into wine and spill a drop for each plague, reducing joy to acknowledge Egyptian suffering:

“Blood, Frogs, Lice, Wild Beasts, Pestilence, Boils, Hail, Locusts, Darkness, Death of the Firstborn.”

Symbolism:

• Wine Drops: Even in liberation, we mourn oppression’s cost (Proverbs 24:17: “Do not rejoice when your enemy falls”).
• Contemporary Twist: Some add modern “plagues” (e.g., racism, climate change) to spur activism.

2. The “Dayenu” Song: Gratitude for Partial Miracles[51], [52]

A joyful hymn lists 15 steps of redemption (e.g., splitting the sea, giving the Torah), each met with “Dayenu” (It would have been enough).

• Plagues Context: “If God had brought us out of Egypt but not executed judgment on them—Dayenu!”

Lesson: Gratitude for each act of deliverance, even without the full story.

3. The “Four Children” and Pharaoh’s Fate[53]

The Wicked Child asks: “What is this service to you?” (Exodus 12:26).

• Answer: “God did this for me when I left Egypt”—emphasizing personal responsibility to oppose tyranny.
• Pharaoh’s Lesson: Arrogance (like the Wicked Child’s) leads to ruin.

 

1. Islamic Narratives: Pharaoh’s Arrogance and Divine Punishment
2. Quranic Account of Pharaoh’s Downfall

• Drowning as Justice:

“We took the Children of Israel across the sea, and Pharaoh and his soldiers pursued them in tyranny. Until, when drowning overtook him, he said, ‘I believe there is no god but the One the Israelites believe in.’ But Allah said: ‘Now? When you had always disobeyed? Today, We will preserve your body as a sign for those after you.’” (Quran 10:90–92)

Key Themes:

• Last-Moment “Faith”: Pharaoh’s “belief” is rejected—sincerity matters, not deathbed repentance.
• Body as a Warning: His mummy (traditionally linked to Rameses II) is a lesson against arrogance (kibr).

2. Ashura Commemoration (Sunni & Shia Views)

• Sunni Islam: Fasting on Ashura (10th of Muharram) commemorates Musa’s victory over Pharaoh.
• Shia Islam: Also mourns Imam Hussein’s martyrdom (680 CE), linking Pharaoh to eternal tyranny vs. justice.

 

Symbolic Parallel:

• Pharaoh = Oppression | Musa/Imam Hussein = Resistance to oppression.

III. Shared Themes & Modern Lessons

Aspect	Judaism (Passover Seder)	Islam (Quran & Ashura)
Plagues’ Purpose	Divine justice for liberation.	Proof of Allah’s power over tyrants.
Pharaoh’s Fate	Drowned, unmentioned post-death.	Body preserved as a warning (Quran 10:92).
Moral Teaching	Oppression must be remembered & resisted.	Arrogance leads to divine humiliation.

Modern Applications:

• Interfaith Solidarity: Jews and Muslims see Pharaoh as the archetypal oppressor—relevant to modern struggles.
• Environmental Justice: Some Seders now include ecological “plagues” (pollution, drought), echoing Islam’s emphasis on natural signs (ayat).

 

Final Thought

Whether through wine drops at the Seder[54] or Quranic verses about Pharaoh’s corpse, both traditions transform ancient plagues into timeless calls for justice. The Exodus isn’t just history, it is a blueprint for liberation.

 

The Bottom Line

 

Pesach: From Liberation to Living Peacefully Together

1. Freedom Is Sacred — But Not Selfish

Passover reminds us that freedom is not just the absence of chains, but the presence of justice. As peace propagators, we must ask: Who is still enslaved today? Be it under occupation, poverty, prejudice, or silence—true liberation means we don’t walk out of Egypt alone.

2. Memory Without Mercy Is Incomplete

We remember Pharaoh’s fall, but we also pour out wine at the Seder to mourn Egyptian suffering. Why? Because the pain of the “enemy” also matters. Peace begins when empathy outlasts enmity.

3. The Odyssey of Moses Is Shared, Not Owned

Jews retell the Exodus. Christians see it echoed in Easter. Muslims honour Moses (peace be upon him) through fasting and Qur’anic reverence. This is not a Jewish story—it is a human one. A story of courage, resistance, faith… and the God who liberates.

4. Ritual Without Relationship Is Hollow

Whether we host a Seder, attend an Iftar, or break Easter bread—the ritual must lead to relationship. We do not just remember the past. We heal the present, together.

5. Let Every Table Be Open

Pharaoh closed doors. Moses opened seas. Peace means opening our homes, our hearts, and our hands, so no one is a stranger at the table of liberation.

Let Passover not just be a feast of freedom, but a flame for fellowship. From Exodus to Embrace, from Mitzrayim (spiritual and geographical term for Egypt, a narrow space, in Torah) [55]to mutuality, let this be the season we walk each other home.

With Shalom and blessings of Pesach

References:                                                                                             

[1] Abrahamic religions – Wikipedia

[2] TRANSCEND MEDIA SERVICE » The Odyssey of the Prince of Peace

[3] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=28132a59de9db5adca6cfc14dddd0d13647cd69ea7b5d6fdde8e3f3212220d02JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Eid+ul+Fitr%2c&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvRWlkX2FsLUZpdHI&ntb=1

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[5] Passover Meaning – Chabad.org

[6] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=7b76a7caef8bab9dbfbb6b0e4c98abff81ae634b74a9b8e77ae7cb57ed6bd3c0JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=.++It++important+to+note+that+Prophet+Moses+(Peace+Be+Upon+Him)+is+the+messenger+of+God%2c+the+Supreme+and+Divine%2c+revered+by+all+three+faiths%3a+Judaism%2c+Christianity+and+Islam.&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cud2h5aXNsYW0ub3JnL3N0b3J5LW9mLW1vc2VzLWluLXRoZS1xdXJhbi8&ntb=1

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[8] https://www.bing.com/aclick?ld=e871uhsvuAl0BsrzeXL9ptsjVUCUw1jMBFOTE9dg3S8OrSuCFWmYW81opBsLTIU6w1zJzjFW7awwRc6NQzfcApyLabK0ZDb4G7T6mdsf641ypVIdzh6n6yqkHvqKiE7TVGezkXZ0ERLMvTKQdWRCVvMEvKFBi_UjQ9K3j8NbdJes0qRrz64WjVga_GrE–Snbxo3JpxA&u=aHR0cHMlM2ElMmYlMmZ3d3cuYXVkaW9ib29rcy5jb20lMmZhdWRpb2Jvb2slMmZleG9kdXMtYS1ub3ZlbC1vZi1pc3JhZWwlMmYxMzUxNjclM2ZyZWZJZCUzZDQwOTEyJTI2bXNjbGtpZCUzZDVlZTBiOTk0YWZlZTE2NGJkN2RiZDE5N2M4ODQ0NTk3&rlid=5ee0b994afee164bd7dbd197c8844597&ntb=1

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[10] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=de7b575cf6a4ed6966be4ab8385092f179f3159a1f9b5e2d02c7380780dfad29JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=the+8-day+observance+of+passover&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuY2hhYmFkLm9yZy9saWJyYXJ5L2FydGljbGVfY2RvL2FpZC8zOTc0MDQwL2pld2lzaC9XaHktSXMtUGFzc292ZXItU2V2ZW4tb3ItRWlnaHQtRGF5cy1Mb25nLmh0bQ&ntb=1

[11] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=b692734e936a624cef5efbebd20bd281ece0fed1ada2f1482dea87add96e74c9JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=afikoman+definition&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvQWZpa29tYW4&ntb=1

[12] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=782a8fea2b317c1ac03fcbe8185f79021c9e725011f99474547bbd55a78bfaecJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Ark+of+the+Covenant+(Tabot)+is+housed+in+Axum%2c+Ethiopia+&u=a1aHR0cDovL3d3dy5zYWNyZWQtZGVzdGluYXRpb25zLmNvbS9ldGhpb3BpYS9heHVtLWFyay1vZi1jb3ZlbmFudCM6fjp0ZXh0PVRoZSUyMEFyayUyMG9mJTIwdGhlJTIwQ292ZW5hbnQlMjB3YXMlMjBsb25nJTIwZW5zaHJpbmVkLG9yJTIwVHJlYXN1cnklMjBidWlsZGluZyUyMG5leHQlMjBkb29yJTIwdG8lMjB0aGUlMjBjaHVyY2gu&ntb=1

[13] Searching for Ancient Passover in Samaria and Ethiopia – Jewish Review of Books

[14] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=b38dc32474033b5b8099f2ed793c1f926f052a09f0121b1fc605a335089ed5b2JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Beta+Israel%e2%80%99s+Sigd+festival+&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvU2lnZA&ntb=1

[15] Thutmose III – Wikipedia

[16] merneptah stele israel – Search

[17] Scientific Explanations for Moses Parting the Red Sea – GKToday

[18] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=2b1b490f1202d9f4bfc4618edcbc244cacafa6ff0c9545f37eec546931979ac1JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Reed+Sea%22+(Yam+Suph)+Misinterpretation&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9saWJyYXJ5LmJpYmxpY2FsYXJjaGFlb2xvZ3kub3JnL2FydGljbGUvcmVkLXNlYS1vci1yZWVkLXNlYS8&ntb=1

[19] https://www.bing.com/aclick?ld=e8mfIDJsjNeEWiHn49A73RPjVUCUzA8tYQfj6n9B2J81S6pAXiXQZuvj7t-awTwhJYdanoxCOMQ8LfyyG1QlC_bDlqprQLn6Kn6WKIi742dVZUsExFELJlKhT6iwXQhxoTLKYwHjJQ09XQIam80Wf7Gj3L_UJIccFemRDciK9Fm3I-G08F9i_3criacIvDatUNF3jl5w&u=aHR0cHMlM2ElMmYlMmZ3d3cudmlhdG9yLmNvbSUyZklzdGFuYnVsLXRvdXJpc20lMmZkNTg1LXIxNzI2NjcxMjc3MS1zMjExODUxMTMxJTNmbSUzZDMzOTUzJTI2c3VwYWclM2QxMjI3MDU2MDU3NjE5MjE4JTI2c3VwY2ElM2Q2NzY5OTQ1NDAlMjZzdXBzYyUzZGt3ZC03NjY5MTM2MjI4MDE0OSUyNnN1cGFpJTNkNzY2OTExMzczNzMzMDYlMjZzdXBkdiUzZGMlMjZzdXBudCUzZG8lMjZzdXBscCUzZDEzNjgyNyUyNnN1cGxpJTNkMTM2ODg3JTI2c3VwdGklM2Rrd2QtNzY2OTEzNjIyODAxNDklMjZ0c2VtJTNkdHJ1ZSUyNnN1cGNpJTNka3dkLTc2NjkxMzYyMjgwMTQ5JTI2bXNjbGtpZCUzZDY3NWU0NTc5MTJiNjE3N2JlNWM3MmQ3YTYxMDQxZmVi&rlid=675e457912b6177be5c72d7a61041feb&ntb=1

[20] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=8d908ddc438cc645d6788d050f33910b9b7c4e345d8d445d80893922eb69c339JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=%e2%80%a2+Beta+Israel+(Ethiopian+Jews)&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvQmV0YV9Jc3JhZWw&ntb=1

[21] • beta israel ethiopian jews – Search Images

[22] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=63ea412e0fed06ccac351326ef6d67be52eab6cba3b8cf8e27a7ccd463e2f2c5JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Ark+of+the+Covenant+is+currently+housed+in+Ethiopia%2c+specifically+within+the+Chapel+of+the+Tablet+at+the+Church+of+Our+Lady+Mary+of+Zion+in+Axum.&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvQ2h1cmNoX29mX091cl9MYWR5X01hcnlfb2ZfWmlvbg&ntb=1

[23] Where is the Ark of the Covenant? – Geographic FAQ Hub: Answers to Your Global Questions

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[25] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=835b4d1df8d4609a26e3e0edd3cf5d9c75812e992a149205f79efd5ceebdc099JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Ahmose+I+(1550+BCE)%3a+&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuYnJpdGFubmljYS5jb20vYmlvZ3JhcGh5L0FobW9zZS1JIzp-OnRleHQ9QWhtb3NlJTIwSSUyQyUyMHdhcyUyMGtpbmclMjBvZiUyMGFuY2llbnQlMjBFZ3lwdCUyMCUyOHJlaWduZWQsRWd5cHQlRTIlODAlOTlzJTIwaGVnZW1vbnklMjBvdmVyJTIwbm9ydGhlcm4lMjBOdWJpYSUyQyUyMHRvJTIwdGhlJTIwc291dGgu&ntb=1

[26] https://www.ethiopiaimmigration.org/news/the-ark-of-the-covenant-ethiopia

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[28] (PDF) (with Christoffer Theis and Manfred Görg), Israel in Canaan (long) before Merenptah? A Fresh Look at Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief 21687, JAEI 2:4 (2010), 1-11

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[34] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d66e1e3d26fddae7029382e67803e211dd7fd9740fee0ee0ab46bd4fb6aef5aeJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Surah+Ta-Ha+(20%3a17-23)%3a&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9xdXJhbi5jb20vdGFoYS8xNy0yMw&ntb=1

[35] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d071a6f1828c07a628ab638e29617dd56a6884162eef5f8e702b6e1eb0b6839eJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Surah+An-Naml+(27%3a10-12)%3a&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9xdXJhbi5jb20vYW4tbmFtbC8xMg&ntb=1

[36] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=6cc4d8da6d9234874864867a68e8269aa7262461ffbe18f88e8b4000fab49b2cJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Surah+Al-A%e2%80%99raf+(7%3a107-108)%3a&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9xdXJhbi5jb20vYWwtYXJhZi8xMDc&ntb=1

[37] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=9c86f686a9475efe3c39e4a7b4a8671a3208b06741035bb8ddd027ae541f8d54JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Al-Tabari%3a+It+symbolized+purity+(%e1%b9%adah%c4%81ra)+and+Allah%e2%80%99s+power+to+transform.h&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9hcmNoaXZlLm9yZy9kZXRhaWxzL3RhcmlraC1hbC10YWJhcmk&ntb=1

[38] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=c1d71865d27aa99fc3368f355c3bb3cdbcda61723eb0ca1a338ef9187bd03e8eJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Ibn+Kathir%3a+The+whiteness+dazzled+observers%2c+proving+it+was+no+trick.&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cud29yZG9mYWxsYWguY29tL3RhZnNlZXI&ntb=1

[39] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d457ce6a40fbe308c45ef062e3cbf29c9c353e9907b9bf0df25897edc6a34640JmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Sufi+View+(Rumi)%3a+The+hand%e2%80%99s+radiance+reflected+inner+enlightenment%e2%80%94Musa%e2%80%99s+soul+purified+by+divine+speech.dll&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9saW5rLnNwcmluZ2VyLNvbS9jaGFwdGVyLzEwLjEwMDcvOTc4LTk4MS0yODctNzc4LTlfNg&ntb=1

[40] https://www.bing.com/search?q=Imam%20Ali’s%20miraculous%20strength%20(e.g.%2C%20lifting%20the%20gate%20of%20Khaybar).&qs=n&form=QBRE&sp=-1&lq=0&pq=imam%20ali’s%20miraculous%20strength%20(e.g.%2C%20lifting%20the%20gate%20of%20khaybar).&sc=0-67&sk=&cvid=ACD08B4BCD7B41B88DCCED1331A962C1

[41] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=a80992d9e5f5f0f8a72cfd2f7ef1c236a5783e3b0cc8faf09612fd9bf9eedc5eJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Christian+Ascetic+and+Mystical+Views+on+Moses%e2%80%99+Hand&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cud2lzZG9tbGliLm9yZy9jaHJpc3RpYW5pdHkvY29uY2VwdC9oYW5kLW9mLW1vc2Vz&ntb=1

[42] https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=a80992d9e5f5f0f8a72cfd2f7ef1c236a5783e3b0cc8faf09612fd9bf9eedc5eJmltdHM9MTc0NTAyMDgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=19bf7366-9926-65b9-0269-601d982664b6&psq=Christian+Ascetic+and+Mystical+Views+on+Moses%e2%80%99+Hand&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cud2lzZG9tbGliLm9yZy9jaHJpc3RpYW5pdHkvY29uY2VwdC9oYW5kLW9mLW1vc2Vz&ntb=1

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[45] John Climacus, St. | Encyclopedia.com

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[54] Why Do We Spill Wine at the Seder? – Chabad.org

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______________________________________________

Professor G. Hoosen M. Vawda (Bsc; MBChB; PhD.Wits) is a member of the TRANSCEND Network for Peace Development Environment.
Director: Glastonbury Medical Research Centre; Community Health and Indigent Programme Services; Body Donor Foundation SA.
Principal Investigator: Multinational Clinical Trials
Consultant: Medical and General Research Ethics; Internal Medicine and Clinical Psychiatry:UKZN, Nelson R. Mandela School of Medicine
Executive Member: Inter Religious Council KZN SA
Public Liaison: Medical Misadventures
Activism: Justice for All
Email: vawda@ukzn.ac.za

Tags: Christianity, Religion

This article originally appeared on Transcend Media Service (TMS) on 28 Apr 2025.

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